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IMITATION IN EDUCATION 



ITS NATURE, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE 



JASPER NEWTON DEAHL, A. M. 

Sometime Fellow in Education, Teachers College, Columbia University 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 

FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

IN THE 

Faculty of Philosophy 
Columbia University 



mew U?orfc 

10OO 

SECOND COPY 



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IMITATION IN EDUCATION 



ITS NATURE, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE 



//jr 



BY / 
JASPER NEWTON DEAHL, A. M. 

Sometime Fellow in Education, Teachers College, Columbia University 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

IN THE 

Faculty of Philosophy 
Columbia University 



IHew H>orfe 

1900 



Monc 



v 






TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Introduction 7 

I. The Nature of Imitation 9-21 

1. Examples of imitation 10 

2. Two kinds of imitation 12 

3. Conscious and unconscious imitation 16 

4. Imitation and originality 16 

II. The Scope of Imitation 22-37 

1. In history 22 

2. In religion 24 

3. In politics 25 

4. In art 26 

5. In literature ... 31 

6. In society 33 

7. In science . - 37 

III. The Significance of Imitation 38-94 

1. What has been thought of imitation 38 

2. Imitation among children ... 41 

3. Imitation among students 44 

a. Questionnaire I . . . 45 

b. Questionnaire II . 47 

4. The training of teachers . .' 52 

a. Questionnaire III 54 

b. Questionnaire IV 61 

5. Imitation in teaching morality 70 

6. Imitation in learning language 74 

7. Imitation in composition 76 

8. Imitation in the acquisition and application of method. 83 



VJ 



CONTENTS 



PACE 



9. Imitation in learning . 86 

a. Interest 87 

b. Sympathy 90 

c. Assimilation .... 91 

d. Emulation 93 

1. Dangers and limitations of imitation 94 

2. Summary 97 

3. Bibliography 100 



IMITATION IN EDUCATION 

Its Nature, Scope, and Significance 



INTRODUCTION 

The plan for the subject-matter of this paper is to consider 
these three topics — the nature, scope, and significance of imi- 
tation — in the order here named. This separate treatment of 
these topics will be observed in the discussion of the nature of 
imitation more than in that of the other two. Yet, in discuss- 
ing the nature of imitation, something of the significance must 
appear, as in the last section, which considers the nature and 
development of originality ; in that section of the paper much 
of the significance of imitation may be seen. Each of the 
other two topics will involve some consideration of the pre- 
ceding topics. The scope of imitation will bring out its na- 
ture and significance to some extent ; the significance of imi- 
tation will show much of its scope, and especially illustrate the 
nature of imitation. 

The purpose of this study is to find and set forth something 
of the practical value of imitation in education. An attempt 
will be made to show that imitation is more fundamental in 
our human nature than we are disposed to grant; that the na- 
ture of intelligent imitation is such as not only to admit of, 
but even to contribute in large measure to the development of 
the higher powers of mind ; that its scope is limited to no 
class of thinkers or doers, and to no particular field of activ- 
7] 7 



8 IMITA TION IN ED UCA TION [8 

ity; that its significance in education is of more importance 
than has generally been recognized by teachers ; that imitation 
in education has a sound practical and psychological basis, 
and that it should be ranked and used with the more valuable 
means of securing mind growth. 



THE NATURE OF IMITATION 

This paper does not pretend to analyze psychologically the 
process by which the example of one person influences the 
conduct of another. We seek only such a conception of the 
nature of imitation as shall describe the facts whose import- 
ance in life, particularly in education, we are trying to ascer- 
tain. We may say roughly that there are two kinds of 
imitation — instinctive in the lower animals and intelligent in 
man. The child, so far as its intelligent manifestations are 
concerned, till it is about six months old, does not materially 
differ from the lower animals. Its first imitative acts would 
be more instinctive than intelligent. Some doubtful cases 
of imitation have been cited much earlier than the sixth 
month. Darwin thinks he noticed his son imitating sounds 
at four months old, but he was not sure of any positive imi- 
tation until the sixth month. Tiedmann noticed his son, at 
four months, making movements with his mouth when he 
saw any one drinking, as if he were tasting something. 
Preyer observed his child of seven months laugh in response 
to those who smiled at it. In each of these cases, the in- 
stinctive tendency was prominent. That is, the child did 
nothing in these cases that it might not have done about that 
age and in about that way without a model from any one. 
These and such acts as these, where the instinct undoubtedly 
plays a large part, we shall call instinctive imitation. 

It is about the sixth month, however, that intelligence 
begins to appear in the child and its imitative acts become 
9] 9 



I0 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [ IO 

more and more intelligent and less instinctive. ' Preyer ob- 
served his child at fifteen months try to blow a candle out 
after it had seen some one else perform the act. This is an 
example of intelligent imitation in one of its simplest forms. 
It is close to the border line, close to copying and mimicryi 
and partakes largely of the mechanical which is always found 
in the simpler and earlier forms of children's imitations. It is 
not instinctive, however, since instinct alone would not have 
prompted the child to blow out the light and the child would 
not have done so without the model — seeing some one blow 
it out. 

A higher form of imitation is illustrated in a child dressing 
and caring for her doll. Here the model is adapted some- 
what by the child to her material. The imagination comes in 
and supplies what does not comport with the external model. 
Of a similar kind is a case cited by 2 Mr. Small. This boy 
had seen some men putting in a system of electric lighting. 
On his return to his home, the boy drove sticks into the ground 
and stretched ropes about the porch and windows and climbed 
the posts to arrange and mend the lines as he had seen the 
line-men do. This case of imitation is of a little higher order 
than that of the child with the doll. It required some more 
imagination to reproduce the model, more selection of elements 
and adaptation. 

Another example of imitation may be taken from a teacher. 
In this case, the teacher had occasion to be under the tuition 
and see the work of a skillful and efficient instructor. The 
method of the instructor, his manner of questioning his pupils, 
management of classes, skill in illustrating and developing the 
subjects, his calm demeanor and self-possession, his interest 
and zeal in subjects and for his pupils, greatly pleased the 
teacher. When the teacher began school work again, he took 

1 Senses and Will, p. 288. 

i Pedagogical Seminary, 4; 20. 



1 r ] THE NATURE OF IMITATION i i 

this instructor as his model. By close application, selection, 
and discrimination, the teacher acquired much of his instruc- 
tor's skill and powder for teaching. But by a slower, more 
pains-taking course, the teacher, who was not naturally calm, 
self-possessed, nor given to manifest interest and enthusiasm, 
found himself becoming like his instructor in these things. 
The teacher continued to try to emulate the model instructor 
until self-possession and enthusiasm in his school work be- 
came natural and fixed in his character. He no longer needed 
to be on his guard at every point in these matters. This 
example of imitation is still of a higher order than that of the 
boy putting in the electric lighting. The point of chief note 
here not found in that of the boy is that the teacher repro- 
duced in himself the inner state and condition of mind in the 
instructor and acquired them by imitation. • 

In these three examples cited, the model was obtained 
chiefly by seeing it, by being brought into contact with it. I 
now wish to give two examples of imitation where the model 
is obtained not at all, or only indirectly, through sight. Re- 
cently I heard a Sunday-school lecture. The lecturer said in 
his introductory remarks that he had learned of a certain 
clergyman who used candles to illustrate his Sunday-school 
lectures. The lecturer whom I heard stated that, upon learn- 
ing of the candle method, he said to himself, "The plan is a 
good one, I can do that." So he set to work and got up his 
outfit to illustrate the points he wished to bring out before the 
school. This was an imitation, and at the same time highly 
original. It was an imitation in that the model was obtained 
from another person and suggested the general plan and pur- 
pose. It was original in that the model gave but a bare out- 
line. The details had to be chosen and the model perfected 
by a process of synthesis. It had to be constructed. It was 
built up by imagination after the judgment had approved of 
the elements chosen. The vague model was brought out in 
clearness by addition and combination of elements. 



! 2 IMITA TIOA IN ED UCA TION [ \ 2 

The other and last example of imitation I desire to give is 
of a somewhat different kind, though similar to the last named. 
In this example, as in the last, the model was not obtained di- 
rectly from the one imitated. It differs, however, in that none 
of the exact data of the model is found in the imitation. This 
is an example where the model is a method of doing some- 
thing. The method is imitated. Mr. Edward Dowden 1 saw 
two of the Literary Portraits of Sainte-Beuve side by side in a 
picture gallery. The portraits were those of Mathurin Regnier 
and of Andre Chenier. The poets represented by these two 
portraits were of two distinct types. Their poetical spirits 
and systems of thought and feeling were unlike. They repre- 
sented two poles on the world of poetic lore; the one was the 
complement of the other. The two portraits placed side by 
side represented a comparative study of the two poets. This 
method of the painter served so well its purpose — to bring out 
in bold relief the essential characteristics of the two comple- 
mentary literary characters — that Mr. Dowden said he would 
adopt the method. This he did in his study of Tennyson 
and Browning, and we have his excellent essay on these two 
poets: ''Mr. Tennyson and Mr. Browning — a Comparative 
Study." 

These examples of imitation may be shown to exhibit the 
chief characteristics of both the instinctive and the intelligent 
types of imitation. Those referred to before the sixth month 
of the-child's life are of the instinctive type. The model or 
the action that called forth the activity of the child simply 
turned the child-like impulse in a given direction at that time. 
The child did only what it might have done, or what at least it 
was able to do without the model. Such may be called imita- 
tive only from the objective point of view. To the observer, this 
seems to be imitative; it is not such, however, from the child's 
point of view. The child did not in any sense whatever delib- 

1 Studies in Literature, p. 191. 



1 3] THE NA TURE OF IMITA TION ! 3 

erately set about to do the thing cited in any of those cases. 
His action was objectively imitative ; subjectively it was in- 
stinctive. 

This instinctive response is seen later in the life of the child 
and even in the adult, and must be distinguished from sub- 
jective, intelligent imitation. It is often found so closely blended 
with the intelligent imitation as to render discrimination be- 
tween the two kinds difficult. You may observe it in the be- 
havior of the child when you extend your hand to greet him. 
I have found upon trial that most children who have not formed 
the habit of giving the right hand and who at the time are not, 
as it were, on their guard, will give the hand opposite the one 
you extend. That is, they will give the left hand in response 
to your right and the right to your left. In these cases the 
responses were instinctive. The child simply imitated the 
model set before it in a reflexive way. It is only when the 
child has learned to inhibit the instinctive impulse or when 
such inhibition has resulted in habit that it responds to your 
greeting after the established form. 

This same kind of imitative tendency is noticeable in the 
adult. Some one laughs, others present do the same without 
knowing the cause of the laughter, or why they themselves 
laughed ; or some one coughs, others do the same without 
having any other occasion for so doing except that the model 
was set, and as it were they followed suit. 

It is probably true that intelligent imitation has its origin in 
instinctive imitation. Human intelligence is thought to have 
its beginnings in instinct. Instinctive behavior forms an im- 
portant part of the raw material on which intelligence exercises 
itself. The intelligence fashions and moulds this raw material 
and guides the activities concerned to finer issues in individual 
adaptation. Thus, beginning with a congenital and instinctive 
imitative tendency, the intelligence may later utilize that ten- 
dency as the basis of imitation of the intelligent type. 

The first example of intelligent imitation — the child blowing 



I4 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [ I4 

the candle out — is not cited because intelligence is thought to 
manifest itself in the child for the first time. There may have 
been earlier many other intelligent acts, but this one is clear. 
There is no doubt to which category it belongs. Yet, while it 
is well marked off from instinctive imitation below, it is quite 
easily distinguished from the next example — the child dressing 
the doll or the boy putting in the electric plant. It was not 
necessary to have in the mind of the child the image of the 
one setting the model or of the child's self blowing the light 
out in order that he himself might be able to blow the light 
out. The knowledge the model gave the child was sense 
knowledge. The knowledge was almost wholly of the percep- 
tual kind. It was presentative knowledge as opposed to rep- 
resentative knowledge. There was no distinct image in the 
mind of the child of what it would do in blowing out the 
light. The model was, so to speak, outside the child's mind, 
as any sense knowledge or perception may be described as be- 
ing outside the mind; for example, the child, seeing its mother, 
has no idea, no image of the mother in its mind. 

Now, in the second example, there is a distinct advance to- 
wards a higher form of knowledge, or what results from sense 
knowledge. The boy saw the men put in the electric plant, or 
the girl saw the mother making the clothes and putting them 
on the children. These things seen left an image in the mind 
of the children. The model now is within the mind. It is an 
idea that is to be acted out, to be expressed. It is very im- 
portant in a proper understanding of the nature of imitation 
to make this distinction — the model as sense knowledge out- 
side, as it were, of the mind, and the model as ideational 
knowledge, an image within the mind. It is only when the 
model is an image in the mind that anything akin to original- 
ity may be looked for in imitation. 

This introduction of the new element, originality, in imita- 
tion appears more clearly in the next example cited. It is not 
so apparent in the case of the teacher. At least we have no 



jg] THE NATURE OF IMITATION jc 

account of it given. Originality may not have been present in 
the imitative process. Yet originality is here made possible 
after the teacher has well formed the habit of behaving after 
the manner of his instructor. Energy is then released to 
pursue new courses. In the example of the Sunday-school 
lecturer, sense knowledge does not at all appear in the model 
as obtained from the clergyman. The end to be attained was 
as in all originality, a guide in building up the new model. 
The means and the end were not so apparent as in the former 
examples. The means had to be supplied more largely in 
this case ; and the mind was more free to adapt the means to 
the end. The vague model became vivified in the process. 
This model was tested by imaginary trial, changed where de- 
fective, and finally the perfected model was acted out. It 
should be noted that in these examples cited above the pro- 
cess is progressive from the first to the fourth. The progress 
is from presentative knowledge to representative knowledge. 
It is from perceptual model to ideational model, from a well 
defined to a less well defined model which is modified and 
adapted to secure the desired end. In the next example, this 
progress from the more concrete to the less concrete obtains 
in a still larger sense. The model is less well-defined to begin 
with. Mr. Dowden saw the portraits which gave him the 
artist's method or model of making the comparative study. 
The model was not complete at first. It had to be filled out 
as in the last example. Just what the artist had in mind, Mr. 
Dowden must supply to a considerable extent from his 
knowledge of literature and literary men. Then this model, 
which was a method of doing something with the brush, must 
be carried over into literature and adapted to the pen. It 
ceases to be a painted image in the mind ; it becomes a word 
picture. Instead of the painter's ideal, it becomes the ideal of 
the man of letters. The model has become an ideal such as 
the author may not attain but towards which he may strive. 
He may have all the essential characteristics — even their 



! 6 IMITA TWN IN ED OCA TION [ j 6 

shades of differences of thought and feeling — in his ideal 
model. They may stand out clear and distinct to Mr. 
Dowden but he can never give a word picture of Tennyson 
and Browning as clear as the one he sees in his model. His 
model has become an ideal because of the material of which 
it is formed and because of its being beyond his power of 
attainment. Owing to this nature of the model, including in 
its reach all stages of mind activity from sense knowledge to 
ideal conceptions, imitation, which is the acting out of the 
model, embraces a large range of mind activity. It is an 
essential element in all originality except possibly the purely 
creative. 

Imitation cannot be described as wholly conscious. We 
imitate many times unconsciously. It is true we often imitate 
with set purpose, have the model as such in our minds ; but 
this is not always true. 1 doubt whether it is true in most 
cases of imitation. The fact that we find ourselves continually 
imitating what we would prefer not to imitate disproves the 
proposition that we always consciously imitate. Besides, I 
have found many cases of imitation in other persons where the 
imitator was not conscious of it as such until after it was 
pointed out to him. Much of our imitation may be detected 
only after the act has been performed by close analysis of our 
conduct and by close introspection and discrimination of our 
own past mental operations and method of procedure. Even 
then much will escape our notice. Many of our models are 
secured long before the opportunity to realize them presents 
itself, and we forget where and how we got them. In such 
cases we are apt to claim originality. 

Imitation as an element in originality has been referred to. 
It will now be necessary to inquire somewhat briefly into the 
nature of originality to see what elements of imitation are 
found in it. This is the more incumbent upon us since the 
educational significance of imitation does not depend so much 
upon the lower limitations of imitation — its origin, for instance, 



!7] THE NATURE OF IMITATION iy 

as it does upon its upper limitations, its possibilities of leading 
to what is called originality in thonght and action. Most 
persons admit that imitation has some value in the early life of 
the child. Very few, however, agree that it has any consider- 
able significance for the adult. This, I take it, is an error due 
to lack of close discrimination. The adult as well as the child, 
the genius as well as the man of mediocrity, has his model. 
The absence of model on the part of the genius is not the thing 
that marks him off from the rest of mankind. On the con- 
trary, he has his model, just as surely as the proletarian in 
thought has his model. The difference between two such 
persons consists in the difference of manner in using such 
models. The genius thinks his model over, colors it with his 
own individuality, his own personality, and thus conceals it 
from ordinary observation ; yet imitation is the important 
element. It is simply of a higher order, more synthetic, more 
constructive in nature. Those who are not included in the 
number of imitators are so few compared with those who do 
imitate that they do not affect the significance of imitation in 
education. It has been well said that for these few such edu- 
cation as one person may occasion in another is very little. 
Most that may be done for such persons is of a negative rather 
than of a positive nature. 

The very small number of such illustrious persons may be 
seen by consulting ' Mr. Galton's " Hereditary Genius." By a 
very careful study of distinguished men of various periods and 
countries, he found that one man in 4000 may be called emi- 
nent and that not more than one in a million, or in many mil- 
lions, sometimes, may be called illustrious. The terms eminent 
and illustrious are not applied to men who have become noted 
by some single act or by some official position. They refer 
to men who have attained and can maintain their distinction 
whatever their position in society may have been or may be in 
the future. Mr. Galton characterizes such men as possessing 

1 Hereditary Genius, p. 9. 



! g IMITA TION IN ED UCA TION [ 1 8 

three separate qualities — intellect, zeal, and power to do 
work. 

1 In cases of originality, there must be an active turn of mind 
or a profuseness of energy put forth in trials of all kinds. 
There must be a disposition to try experiments not unlike a 
fanaticism for experimentation. Profuse, active vigor let loose 
on a field which has increasing charm for the mind, results in 
human nature surpassing itself. Then we have originality, in- 
vention, discovery. 2 These original men and women, the 
marvelous flowers of the race, do not appear by chance or by 
miracle, but represent the crowning point of a long past. They 
synthesize the greatness of their time and of the race. Inven- 
tion and discovery are always the result of a long series of 
anterior inventions and discoveries. The geniuses build an 
edifice with the stones that others have hewn. Invention is 
only the crowning stroke. 3 No elements of representation can 
get into consciousness except as they have already been pres- 
ent in some form in presentation. The activities of consciousness 
are always conditioned on the content of presentation and re- 
presentation present at a given time. Imagination is construc- 
tive, not creative. Types of imagination differ only in the 
amount of novelty introduced — the lucky associations formed 
in discerning fine distinctions in the contiguous or in the 
similar. * The man of originality differs from the merely 
mechanical man in his imitative tendencies just in the same 
way that he differs in his thinking from such a man. The two 
types of mind are separated by a very wide gulf which at the 
same time is very narrow. A mere matter of difference in 
direction of nerve-currents might produce opposite results. It 
is a matter of association of ideas that marks off the man of 

1 Bain, Senses and Intellect, p. 6io. 

2 Le Bon, Psychology of Peoples, p. 200. 

s Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 90. 
* James, Psychology, II; 325. 



jn] THE NATURE OF IMITATION !q 

originality from the man of commonplace thought. In the 
latter, we have a mind that deals only in habitual contiguities 
or similarities; in the former, we have a mind that deals in 
rare and keenly discriminated contiguities and similarities. 
Now, something analogous to this is found to hold true be- 
tweeen the two types of mind in the matter of imitation. The 
mechanical rnind discovers and uses only the perfectly appar- 
ent models for imitation. The model is followed almost liter- 
ally. There is little adaptation. The original mind has the 
sagacity to see the finer issues in the model, to see where new 
elements may be added or old ones modified. The associa- 
tions in such a mind take in the novel, make unaccustomed 
connections. The model becomes a vitalized thing; the model 
changes, grows, and becomes an ideal. 

Originality as shown in the psychology of ' invention illu- 
strates the common elements found in imitation and in 
in originality. Inventions may be divided into two psy- 
chological types, — the one creative, due to spontaneous and 
novel synthesis, the other developing an old form — a distinct 
model. An invention is a new systemization of psychic ele- 
ments. Every intellectual creation, whatever it may be, 
literary, artistic, scientific, or industrial, consists in the develop- 
ment of a synthetic idea furnished by new combinations of 
elements already existing in the mind. The invention is the 
reaction of the mind upon some given circumstances, and it 
depends for its results upon the nature of the reacting mind. 
The model is often presented to the mind in some unlooked 
for manner. The sagacious mind seizes it and develops it by 
a synthetic process. The first idea M. Daudet had of " Fro- 
ment Jeune " came to him while seeing a play in a vaudeville 
theatre. The first idea M. Massenet had of his " Roi de 
Lahore " was received at the sight of a simple Indian chest. 
Roger Dumas gives in some detail how his mind was prepared 

*F. Paulhan, in Revue Philosophique, 45; pp. 225-258. 



20 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [ 2 o 

to write " Tristesse de David." Mr. Dumas saw a painting of 
David, old, sorrowful, in a reverie upon his throne, with the 
sun setting. The author tells how he filled out in his mind 
the whole intent and purpose of the painter, how he added 
other images to this one central image — the model, how he 
changed and recombined the elements of his mental images, 
until finally his subject " Tristesse de David " came out of this 
" hatching " process. Having his subject, he continued to 
take note of the images that seemed best suited for his theme 
until he reached an image that would fittingly close his literary 
work. Then he selected and arranged his images to form his 
perfected model. 

Many other examples might be cited, including almost 
every form of invention and scientific discovery, such as the 
air brake suggested to Westinghouse by an account of com- 
pressed air used in piercing a tunnel. Practically the only 
kind of invention or discovery in which imitation does not 
figure largely as an element, is that kind hit upon by trial and 
error, continued experimentation. A good example of the 
last named kind is found in Mr. Goodyear's invention of vul- 
canized india-rubber. In this case, and in similar cases, the 
inventor simply tried one experiment after another until a 
happy hit was made. It can not be said that he had a model 
in mind and worked it out to perfection. But in all or most 
of the cases where originality is manifested imitation is an im- 
portant factor. Where the invention is a development, imita- 
tion of successive models may be called the chief factor in the 
process ; where invention is constructive, the elements are 
already in the mind, and the model is fashioned by the syn- 
thetic process and realizes itself in imitation of the model. 

To support the position taken here, I wish to give a quota- 
tion from a history and description of remarkable inventions. 
The passage to be cited does not use the term imitation, but 
it may be clearly seen that the process of invention, or the 
means of developing originality, consists in intelligent selection 



2I ] THE NATURE OF IMITATION 21 

of models and in constructive imitation of such models. 1 "To 
enable us to appreciate properly the gradual advances that 
have been made in perfecting any invention, it is necessary to 
consider its distinguishing features. In steam navigation, for 
example, it will be found that the amount of novelty to which 
each inventor has a claim is very small, and that his principal 
merit consists in the application of other inventions to accom- 
plish his special object. The same remark will indeed apply 
to most other inventions ; for the utmost that inventive genius 
can accomplish is to put together in new forms, and with 
different applications, preceding contrivances and discoveries, 
which were also the results of antecedent knowledge, labor, 
and skill." 

1 T. C. Bakewell, Great Facts, p. 7. 



II 

THE SCOPE OF IMITATION 

The scope or the extent of imitation in the world at large is 
much greater than we are usually disposed to think. A fair 
appreciation of this factor in the institutional life of society, 
will indicate how large an influence the imitative tendency and 
the imitative ability should have in one institution of civiliza- 
tion — the school. I can not here give more than a few 
examples from history. And yet, these will go to show some- 
thing of the range and scope of imitation, and to suggest what 
a more exhaustive account might contain. 

The history of the world is one panorama of imitation. The 
more carefully and minutely the study of history is made, the 
more apparent this fact becomes. In this historical sketch, I 
shall cite only those nations and peoples who have been 
prominent in the affairs of the world. These will exhibit the 
intelligent type of imitation of which we are now speaking. I 
shall choose a few of the many notable examples from people 
of recognized, high intellectual types. The Hebrews may be 
noted first. It is a matter of record that the nation became a 
kingdom in imitation of the neighboring nations. Any one 
who will make a comparative study of the ancient oriental 
religions will not fail to note the striking similarity between 
the Hebrew religion and the other religions of that region. 
The origin of much of the Hebrew belief and practice can be 
distinctly traced to other religions. This does not take any 
account whatever of the many lapses into idolatry which were 
due almost wholly to imitation. It must be borne in mind 
that the Hebrews were a strong, vigorous, intellectual people. 
22 [22 



23] THE SCOPE OF IMITATION 2 $ 

They were peculiarly hedged about to prevent this very thing, 
to. keep them from imitating in government and religion. 
With all this, there is no better example of the power and 
significance of imitation. Just how much the Greeks followed 
other nations and peoples in the development of their govern- 
ment, religion, and art is not easily determined. It is a fact, 
however, worthy of note that there were but two models in 
Greece for the Greeks. Sparta and Athens set the pattern for 
all the other Greek states and for the colonies. Rome has 
been called the nation of borrowers. It would be more nearly 
correct to call the Romans the nation of imitators. The 
significant part they played in the world's history is due 
almost wholly to their remarkable imitative tendency and 
ability. They possessed great ability for imitating. Yet, they 
contributed largely to the progress of humanity. The Greeks 
and Romans have been models in art, literature, law, etc., for 
all the world. History is full of the accounts of those who 
have tried to restore Athens and Rome. The dream of 
Charlemagne was of this nature. For a thousand years the 
Holy Roman Empire of the Germans was an imitation of 
Rome. The Roman model still lives in the German schools, 
laws, and government. The Crusades were one vast imitative 
enterprise. The epidemic extended from children to the aged, 
from the most simple-minded to the most acute thinkers of the 
time. Even after the fanatical craze was over, after the 
imitative tendency had expended itself, deliberate imitation 
continued in the military and commercial enterprises. The 
feudalism of the Middle Ages had its origin, as an institution, 
and its growth in imitation. It remains to-day in our " spoils 
system." That very astute and far-sighted warrior and states- 
man, Peter the Great, said, when he was defeated by the 
Swedes, that they had simply taught him how to beat them in 
later engagements. Peter the Great founded his empire by 
imitating other nations. The remarkable development and 
recently manifested power of Japan is due to its ability and 



24 IMITA TION IN ED UCA TION [24 

disposition to imitate western civilization. When Prussia in 
1870 defeated France, the latter immediately began to repair 
her loss and to render a similar disaster less possible by imitat- 
ing Germany in her public education. Our own constitution* 
said to be the most original ever framed, contains no new 
elements. Every essential feature may be found in European 
governments. There was simply a new arrangement, a new 
synthesis of the old. Our state constitutions are modeled 
after our national constitution— an imitation of it. The 
motive force in modern labor organizations and of trusts and 
' combines " is to be found in the tendency and ability to 
imitate. One class of laborers organize, or one industry is 
formed into a trust; the result is seen, and the process is 
imitated. 

./The influence of imitation in religion is too apparent to need 
more than a mere reference, There is probably not one per- 
son in a thousand, who deliberately chooses his religion from 
among Christianity, Mohammedanism, Buddhism, etc. Even 
among Christian denominations, there is probably not more 
than one in a hundred whose membership is not determined 
by imitation of parents or of those with whom he is associated- 
The imitative tendency in religion is strongly marked by 
American religious epidemics, usually termed revivals. In 
1800 a religious epidemic spread rapidly in this country. In 
Kentucky, a camp-meeting was held at Cabin Creek. It lasted 
four days. People were seized with fits of crying, singing, 
praying, shouting. All the people in that vicinity were drawn 
into the maelstrom as if by magic. One man thus describes 
the scenes: "The laborer quitted his task; age snatched his 
crutch ; youth forgot his pastimes ; the plow was left in the 
furrow; the deer enjoyed a respite upon the mountains; busi- 
ness of all kinds was suspended ; bold hunters and sober 
matrons, young men, maidens, and little children flocked to the 
common centre of attraction." This is simply an example of 
what occurred at other places and at other times, as in New 
Haven and New York in 1832. 



2 j] THE SCOPE OF IMITATION 2 $ 

Commercial epidemics illustrate the force of imitation 
in a slightly different form. This is seen when a run is made 
on a bank or when some speculating scheme is set on foot. 
It has been well said that ' " men think in crowds and go 
mad in herds." The tulip craze in Holland, the South Sea 
Scheme, the Mississppi Scheme are well known examples. 
In these examples, imitation, at least intelligent imitation, 
is not the only factor, but it is one of the operating influ- 
ences. 

^Tn politics imitation is quite as prominent as in religion. 
Most men vote the ticket of their fathers or at least find them- 
selves more closely allied with the party of their fathers, than 
with any other party. This is very noticeable where children 
of the same parents are separated and brought up by other 
people. In such cases the boys ally themselves, in nearly every 
case, with the party to which their guardians belong, and if 
these happen to belong to different parties, the brothers will be 
of different political faith. I recently collected a few data to 
find to what extent men do imitate their parents in this matter. 
I gave two questions to a number of college men. All the 
men are college graduates, a number are college professors. 
The purpose in selecting this class of men was to get those 
who would be most likely to break away from parental influ- 
ences. If the answers do not represent the facts, I think the 
error is on the negative side — on the side of those who do not 
vote as their fathers. The reason for this belief is, many men 
whom I approached on the subject were somewhat sensitive on 
the question. They would at once see the import of the questions 
and manifested a dislike to be reckoned with those who imitate 
in anything. They are like most men in desiring to be among 
the thinkers, " the eminently original." The two questions 
were: (i) Do you vote the same party ticket that your father 
votes? (2) If not, do you find yourself more closely allied 

1 Sidis, Psychology of Sulfation, p. 343. 



2 6 IMITA TION IN ED UCA TION [ 2 6 

with the party of your father than with any other party ? To 
the first question, 33 answered yes and 17 no. To the second 
question 9 answered yes and 8 no. The number of men to 
whom these were put was 50. Thirty-three or sixty-six per 
cent, voted the party ticket of their fathers ; seventeen or 
thirty- four per cent, did not. If the nine who answered in the 
affirmative to the second question be added to those of the 
first question, we have forty- two or eighty- four per cent, who 
do vote as their fathers against eight or sixteen per cent, who 
do not belong to the party of their fathers. These last eighty- 
four and sixteen per cent, respectively, represent the facts, be- 
cause an affirmative answer to the second is practically the 
same answer to the first. It is certainly true that if men were 
promiscuously canvassed, the per cent, of those adhering to 
the paternal party would be much larger. This on a small 
scale represents the influence of imitation in politics. It is not 
at all probable that all these men or any considerable number 
came to their present convictions by a process of reasoning. 
On the contrary, men are controlled by imitation and only 
when they need to justify their positions do they begin to 
reason in self defense. 

y In art not only may the scope of imitation be seen, but the 
selective nature also of intelligent imitation is well brought 
out. It was claimed in discussing the nature of imitation that 
in its higher forms, where originality is most clearly mani- 
fested, the model tends to become an ideal. This maybe more 
clearly seen in what we shall present here concerning art. It 
will also appear, I think, that the works of art are not due to 
some occult power from which they come out full grown as 
Venus from the waves, or as Athena from the head of Zeus. 
As in all other inventive powers and products of mind, they 
take their elements from sense data which become an idea, then 
an ideal, which is slowly and laboriously evolved from the first 
simple model; and the product or work of art is executed in 
intelligent imitation of the model or ideal. 



27] THE SCOPE OF IMITATION 2 j 

1 The arts may be divided into the purely imitative or copy- 
ing arts, as mechanical craft, wax figures, colored statues, 
artificial flowers, engravings, etc., and the fine or creative arts, 
poetry, music, painting, etc. The fine arts are all imitative ; 
they are not copies, they are creations. They admit of the 
expression of an idea or sentiment, or telling of a story which 
distinguishes them from the merely imitative arts. De Quincey 
says that poetry takes precedence among the fine arts, that its 
mode of imitation is least material and farthest removed from 
sensible objects. It merely produces the images of objects by 
abstract and indirect means. It is not susceptible of being 
confounded with its model. Music comes next in order. 
Poetry and music each depend for their interpretation upon 
sentiment and mental activity. Painting, which imitates 
bodies by the lineal appearance and the color of bodies, is 
next in order of succession and is followed by sculpture, etc. 
In these last the model and what becomes the image are more 
nearly in actual contact. The fine arts, aside from literature, 
are peculiar in their power of expression. They consist in 
representing the moral by the physical, intellectual ideas and 
affections by palpable forms, in giving thought to bodies. 
The imitative arts copy the form ; the fine arts make an ideal 
imitation. Ideal embellishment is beyond the province of 
mere copying. But this ideal has a physical basis. Man can 
not create something out of nothing or form without a model; 
that is the prerogative of the infinite alone. With all his 
powers man can not be anything but an imitator. A new 
idea or conception is suggested to the mind of man consciously 
or unconsciously, but it may always be traced to its origin. 
The artist must go to the immutable laws of nature to get the 
principles that are essential to successful imitation. Sir Joshua 
Reynolds says " our art is not a divine gift neither is it a 
mechanical trade." Goethe says " the artist must hold to 

1 M. A. Dwight, Introduction to the Study of Art, p. 11-33. 



2 8 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [ 2 8 

nature, imitate her. He must choose the best out of the good 
before him." Every one is familiar with the story giving the 
origin of the Corinthian order of architecture — the story of 
the artist who took his hint, his model, from the basket over- 
grown with leaves. He idealized the object presented to his 
notice, adapted it to a specific object and produced a work of 
artistic beauty that will be forever preserved. He held to the 
very essence of imitation in art, to represent reality by its 
appearance alone. A true work of imitation bears some im- 
press from the mind of the artist, and thus the artist conveys 
to the mind of another his conception of the subject repre- 
sented. His idea becomes an ideal and is expressed by 
imitating it. The great artist is distinguished not by uncom- 
mon powers of mind but by uncommon combination of 
powers — free imagination, fine sentiment both moral and 
intellectual, clear discrimination, sound reason and judgment. 
These powers in combination enable the artist to take a sense 
model, idealize it, and express it in imitation. His imitative 
and assimilative power enable him to separate the essential 
from the accidental, to proceed from part to whole, thus 
educing an ideal nature from the germs of the actual. 

The Greeks have long been celebrated for their works of 
art. To what extent they got their models from other people 
is not known. Layard in his Assyrian researches has brought 
to light many specimens of artistic works which probably fur- 
nished-models to the artists and architects of ancient Greece- 
Then, too, the Greeks possessed a remarkable ability for 
imitating nature. Aristotle well describes their conception of 
art in his definition : " A work of art is an idealized copy of 
human life — of character, emotion, action — under forms mani- 
fested to the sense." The perfection of art works among the 
Greeks consisted largely in their fixed ideals obtained from 
nature. ' Zeuxis painted grapes so perfectly true to nature 

1 Thomas Purdie, Journal of the Society of Arts, 12; 329. 



2q] 1 "HE SCOPE OF IMITA TION 2 Q 

that the birds came and pecked at the fruit on the canvas. 
Apelles painted horses so truthfully that animals of their own 
kind greeted them by neighing. Parrhasius painted a curtain 
so true to nature that his competitor took it for a real curtain 
drawn over the picture. It is claimed that the fine arts had 
their origin in the love of imitation which is no doubt an 
original, powerful sentiment or instinct of our minds. How- 
ever, art is only great or imitation fascinating in proportion to 
intellectual elements employed. Goethe says the poet or 
painter holds up a mirror to material objects — earth, plants, 
animals, mankind — and catches a reflection of the world 
around him which is itself only a reflection of an ideal. Thus, 
fine art is a copy of a copy three times removed from truth. 

While modern _ideals__diner essentially from Greek ideals, 
the importance of imitation — to choose the best and execute 
with patience and skill — is still recognized. William M. Hunt, 
one of America's great artists, used to urge his studio pupils 
to study the best pictures over and over again. " You must 
set yourselves ahead by studying fine things. I've told you 
over and over again whose works to draw — Michael Angelo, 
Raphael, Diirer, Holbein, Mantagna. Get hold of something 
of theirs. Hang it up in your room ; trace it, copy it, draw it 
from memory over and over, until you own it as you own 
' Casabianca ' and ' Mary had a Little Lamb.' " 

The great Italian artist ' Leonardo da Vinci happened in his 
boyhood to get in his possession that inestimable folio of draw- 
ings once owned by Vasari. This folio contained certain 
designs by Verrocchio, faces of such impressive beauty that 
Da Vinci copied them again and again. In the artist's works 
in later life, there seems to be a touch of the early pictures he 
copied so often as a germinal principle, " the unfathomable 
smile, always with a touch of something sinister in it." From 
childhood this model seems to have developed, defining itself 

1 Pater, Studies in the History of the Renaissance, pp. 116-117. 



, IMITATION IN EDUCATION r^ Q 

more and more clearly, until he met the Florentine lady, the 
wife of Francesco del Gioconde. She seemed to give living 
form to his ideal dream. Present, from the first incorporeal in 
the artist's thought, dimly traced in the designs of Verrocchio, 
his ideal took form in Mona Lisa, the portrait of the Florentine 
lady. This masterpiece of one of the great artists of the world 
reveals Da Vinci's mode of thought and work. It illustrates 
how an ideal model is developed in a master mind, its slow 
growth, and its final execution in imitation. It also illustrates 
how an ideal was attained, is adapted and used again and 
again, for the facial expression of Mona Lisa is traceable in his 
other, later portraits. 

This use of a once perfected ideal is found in other artists. 
The face of little St. John in Botticelli's " Madonna of the 
Louvre " is used again and again in other works of that artist. 
Murillo got his models from the common people he met, and 
used the same ideal models over and over even in sacred sub- 
jects. Any one who will take the trouble to compare Cabanel's 
" Queen Vashti " and his " Shulamite " will not fail to observe 
the same ideal repeated in these paintings. The same thing 
may be observed in Vibert's " The Reprimand " and in his 
" The Startled Confessor." Most of Kensett's paintings and 
those of Inness have each a tone that will enable the observer 
to recognize the artist in his work. Or, take a group of por- 
traits in the Metropolitan Museum and a common model may 
be traced through all. Compare Reynolds' portraits of "Lady 
Carew," " Mrs. Arnold," " Mrs. Angelo "; John Hoppner's por- 
trait of a " Lady ; " Richard Beechey's portrait of a " Lady ; " 
Thomas Lawrence's " Lady Ellenborough ; " Robert Pine's 
"Mrs. Reid;" Francis Cote's " Lady Hardwicke." These are 
all works of artists of originality. Yet the similarity is very 
striking. A similar model is seen in each. In Reynolds' 
"Lady Carew" and in his " Mrs. Angelo," it is most notice- 
able, except possibly in Hoppner's and in Beechey's portraits 
of ladies. The two last are very similar in tone, expression, 



jl] THE SCOPE OF IMITATION 3 1 

etc. These men form a kind of school in art. The funda- 
mental principle in any school of art, or of literature is imita- 
tion. Among the master artists, it is selective, intelligent, 
often unconscious imitation. Among the second or third rate 
artists, imitation is the cause of the similarity but it is a less 
intelligent, a more mechanical kind of imitation; it approaches 
nearer to what we term copying. 

Literature is quite as fruitful a field for the study of imita- 
tion as that more generally called art, which we have just been 
considering. The field is so large and rich in material that it 
would be too large a theme in itself for a paper like this. We 
shall therefore confine ourselves within small compass. We 
can not do more than suggest some of the productions of 
recognized literary merit and the intimate relations between 
imitation and originality. It must be borne in mind that the 
claim here made is that there is very little absolutely original. 
Originality is relative. Only one person in a million or in 
many millions can produce a work of originality, and such a 
person, may be, only once in a life time. What passed for 
original is only relatively so, and in this synthetic originality, 
imitation is a large factor. 

To see more clearly the distinction between the absolutely 
original, such as only the genius may approach, and the rela- 
tively original, such as men of eminence may attain and ordinary 
people may approximate at least, let us ask the question — what 
is absolute originality? An absolutely original work must con- 
sist in something which can be likened to no other thing that 
existed previously. A work to be perfectly original should not 
merely remind us of no other work of the same class but pre- 
vent us from thinking of any other in connection with it. Such 
a work must possess characters, a turn of thought and of senti- 
ment, and a style wholly its own. The materials in the man- 
agement of which this originality is shown, must be drawn 
from nature alone and be referable to something in nature, and 
be interesting to the mind and heart of man. 



, 2 I MIT A TION IN ED UCA TION [32 

If we try the great literary geniuses, such as Chaucer, Shak- 
speare, and Carlyle, by this standard, we shall find that each, 
to use James's phrase, exhibits but " a pepper corn " of origin- 
ality, in the sense in which we are now using the term origin- 
ality. Chaucer certainly borrowed largely from Boccaccio for 
his " Canterbury Tales." After the student has made a study 
of Shakespeare and finds how he laid the whole world under 
contribution, he will certainly feel that the great genius is not 
so great after all. Of his more than thirty-five plays, there is 
one plot that seems to be Shakespeare's. Carlyle's " Sartor 
Resartus " is of German origin, founded upon a book received 
from a German. No one disclaims the originality of these 
men, but we do claim that it consisted largely in their ability 
to imitate, to see the right model, to form new combinations 
using this model as a base for operation. 

This use of imitation is seen in most great authors, especially 
in their most notable works. It has been said that ' Bulwer 
Lytton is an author of the composite kind, owing all he has 
attained less to the force of his own genius than to his valuable 
facility of imitating others. He took several of his characters 
in " The Caxtons " from Sterne's " Tristram Shandy." Sterne 
in his turn caught much of his humor from Rabelais and 
others. The essential things in " Robinson Crusoe" delighted 
men and boys five or six centuries before De Foe's time. 
The conception seems to have come from the Arabs — a child 
placed upon a lonely island and coming by degrees to a 
knowledge of every thing. " Gulliver's Travels " was sug- 
gested to Swift by the writings of a Frenchman, Cyrano de 
Bergerac. Cyrano wrote the history of the sun and moon as 
a satire on the philosophy of his age. He treated philosophy 
much as Cervantes had treated chivalry. A trip to the moon 
reveals many encounters and experiences much like those of 
Gulliver. But, Cyrano was not the original of Gulliver. This 

: Putnam's Monthly, 8; 1 13. 



23] THE SCOPE OF IMITATION 33 

may be found in Lucian's " True History." Rabelais imitated 
the Greeks, and in turn was imitated by those who came after 
him. Don Quixote is an old legend found in Lucian and in 
Aristophanes. Besides, earlier than Cervantes, Chaucer had 
expressed similar ideas. The Saxon Caedrron and later 
Avitus sang " Paradise Lost " long before Milton. Tennyson's 
" Two Voices " may have been suggested by George Fox. 

Indeed, to any one who reads attentively, imitation would 
seem to be the law of literary progress and excellence. Imita- 
tion in literature as well as elsewhere has a great part, and we 
may as well make the best of the ability to imitate in a practi- 
cal and philosophical way. Imitation can not be said to be a 
sign of weakness. The great Shakspeare and Burns are among 
those who have laid most determined hands upon the modes 
and thoughts of others. When a writer improves what he 
imitates, he does well; but when he fails to add beauty, we 
condemn him. New light, or grace, or charm, must be given. 
In the progress of the mind, in all departments of literature, 
we find imitation, the most palpable, in the books we most 
admire. 

The scope of imitation is widest and doubtless most signifi- 
cant in society, in what goes to build up civilization. In the 
enlightening or civilizing process, there are two opposing and 
equally prominent forces at work. The one is the conserva- 
tive force — to keep things as they are ; the other a radical or 
progressive force — to keep things changing. Imitation is a 
factor in each. Society is held together more largely by 
imitation than by any other one agency. It brings the newly 
born members in line with the average behavior of their kind. 
This may be its most important function in society. Imitation 
is also progressive in its function in society. In any given 
social state, there are certain well recognized standards of 
conduct and behavior. For this given society, progress is 
possible only on the ground that there be in it some members, 
more vigorous, more active, more intelligent than the others. 



24 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [34 

These members — the skeptics, the socialists, it may be — 
break with the present order of things, with the accepted 
standards. Such persons forge ahead of their fellows and 
their generation. However, unless that leveling up force — 
intelligent imitation — comes to their aid, they will ever be re- 
garded as cranks and fanatics. Since imitation is selective, 
chooses the best models, these more progressive members of 
society will be taken as models by the more thoughtful among 
the other members. This molding influence goes down 
through society in a geometric ratio. These intelligent, zeal- 
ous, forceful men and women in society, who set the models 
for the others, are the leaven in society ; the fermentation, the 
leavening of the social whole, is the work of imitation. 

It is by means of imitation that the social web is woven. It 
comes to us as tradition. Through the imitative tendency 
and ability, we receive our social inheritance. l M. Tarde 
points out that phenomena of every kind can be known only 
because they repeat themselves. In physics we study repeti- 
tion under the forms of undulation of vibration ; in biology, 
under the forms of heredity, or the transmission of life and 
characteristics from cell to cell ; in sociology, under the form 
of imitation, or the transmission of impulse, feeling, and idea 
from individual to individual, from group to group, from gen- 
eration to generation. For Mr. Tarde society is imitation 
through and through — one ceaseless round of imitation. For 
him, imitation is the fundamental characteristic of sociology. 
2 Prof. Giddings does not agree with this conclusion. He is 
of opinion that social consciousness is the fundamental fact of 
society. But he says if imitation is not fundamental in social 
relations it must be very nearly so. His reason for this view 
is that imitation is not peculiar to social relations ; it is present 
in non-social affairs of life as well as in the social. 3 A11 

1 les lois de V imitation. 

2 Principles of Sociology, p. 15. 

3 Principles of Sociology, p. 100. 



35] THE SCOPE OF IMITATION 35 

activity is a clash of atoms or of thoughts. Conflict is an 
essential of all progress. This conflict is manifested in one of 
two forms. First, there is primary conflict which is conquest. 
Second, there is secondary conflict which is contention. The 
first often destroys, the second simply modifies. All evolution 
begins in primary conflict and continues in the higher forms 
in contention. Death usually follows the first form ; develop- 
ment, the second. When two armies contend, each repeats 
the maneuvres and many of the tactics of the other, as the war 
in South Africa at the present time well illustrates. When 
two men contend, each instinctly or selectively repeats the 
method of attack and defense of the other to a greater or less 
degree. This second kind of conflict is often seen in a milder 
form. The unexpected meeting of long parted friends has 
sometimes resulted in death. You meet a stranger, conflict 
may manifest itself in a flushing of the face, in a conscious 
thrill. In whatever form this conflict exhibits itself in one, it 
tends to repeat itself in the other. Imitation therefore is a 
part of every conflict. The mode of conflict instinctive or in- 
telligent is followed by like kind of imitation. 
y Imitation is a factor in society, in the conflict that gradually 
assimilates and harmonizes the opposing forces. The char- 
acteristic modes of thought and action spread from individual 
to individual. However, 1 while imitation softens old conflicts 
it creates new ones. Imitation in religion, in politics, even in 
scientific thought, may set brother against brother. This is 
taught in prophecy and exemplified in the history of the Chris- 
tian religion. 

In society as everywhere else intelligent imitation is never a 
perfect copy. ' Like waves of light, it is refracted by its media. 
The nature of the mind of the imitator and the environment ot 
the imitator, each tend towards differentiation. When the con- 

1 Principles of Sociology, p. 1 1. 
3 Les lois de /' imitation, p. 24. 



,6 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [36 

flict produced by this differentiation results in a combination 
due to the contention of a weaker and stronger sentiment and 
image, we have the essence of ' invention. It is the creation 
of a new idea and a new 2 practice by the combination of 
familiar ideas and of current practices. New examples and 
models are all the while coming into existence to struggle 
against the established customs and modes of imitation. It is 
in this way that both stability and progress owe much to this 
factor. Some of the essential elements of society — communi- 
cation, toleration, alliance — are each largely contributed to by 
developed imitation. The chief social factor of the economic 
life is imitation. By means of it, sympathetic association is 
rendered more possible. By means of sympathetic imitation a 
social sense and a social habit are evolved. Likewise, the in- 
tellectual powers of voluntary attention, generalization, abstract 
thought, and invention are developed chiefly by association of 
individuals. 3 These presuppose in the individual the con- 
sciousness of himself, and that consciousness is an effect of his 
observation and imitation of individuals like himself. 

The moral sentiments — self denial, self government — as well 
as the intellectual activities are largely developed through imita- 
tion. Adam Smith said : "As nature teaches the speculators to 
assume the circumstances of the persons principally concerned, 
so she teaches these last in some measure to assume those of 
the speculators." 4 We are so far susceptible to suggestion and 
so far imitative in all matters of material and moral well-being, 
that we desire and endeavor to live at least as well as the 
average, fairly well to-do, fairly well-behaved members of the 
community. The desire to enjoy what others enjoy and the 
imitative tendency to act as others act, are strong enough in 

1 Les lois de V imitation, p. 26. 

* Principles of Sociolo%\>, p. 112. 
3 Principles of Sociology, p. 122. 

* Principles of Sociology, p. 123. 



37] THE SCOPE OF IMITATION 37 

the social individual to impel him to pursue his material and 
moral interests as diligently as most others pursue theirs. 
This combination of desire and diligence is the basis of what 
economists call the standard of living. It is the foundation ot 
wealth and behavior as well as of all individual advancement. 

It would be very interesting and instructive to know how 
large a part imitation plays in psychology, to know to what 
extent men follow the lead of Leibnitz, Locke, Kant, Wundt, 
and James in the method and thought of these leaders. How 
many men have imitated in their method of thought and re- 
search that of Darwin in reaching his conception of organic 
evolution? How many have imitated Schleiden and Schwan 
in the cell theory ? For it is the method of thought and work 
that thinkers imitate most. Here imitation yields rich returns, 
because the method of thinking and of doing is the most valu- 
able lesson we can learn from our fellows. When we compare 
how few men have hit upon a new method in physical, in 
chemical, or in biological laboratories, and how many men 
have imitated these few happy hits we can in part begin to ap- 
preciate the role of imitation in the sciences. 

In history, religion, politics, art, literature, sociology, and in 
pure science, not only is the scope of imitation exhibited, but 
also its nature and significance further brought out. That 
imitation — an element playing so large part in all these lines of 
human progress — should be discredited for so long by so many 
people is certainly unfortunate to say the least. If it is as im- 
portant a factor in the development of originality in these 
diverse fields of human thought and action as it seems to be, 
why should it not also be important in the process of school 
education ? 



Ill 

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 

Something of the significance of imitation has already ap- 
peared in the discussions of the previous topics. Before we 
consider any special phases of its significance, let us see what 
some of the prominent educators who have expressed them- 
selves upon this subject have thought of the imitative process 
in education. 

Aristotle says " Imitation is innate in men from childhood ; 
for in this men differ from other animals that of all they are the 
most imitative and through imitation get their first teachings." 
In emphasizing the importance of teachers understanding their 
pupils, Quintilian seems to think that knowledge of the faculty 
of imitation and of the laws of memory are equally essential. 
If we remember what considerable importance he attached to 
memory, we may fairly well get his estimate of imitation. It 
would be one of the first educational means. Leibnitz made 
imitation an efficient factor in his world of monads. For him, 
the soul was a monad which reflected or imitated the other 
monads of the universe. By this means self-activity manifests 
itself. This was to him the soul's means of cognition. While 
Montaigne did not explicitly evaluate imitation, he made a tell- 
ing application of its significance, His whole educational 
philosophy is an imitation of the education he received at the 
hands of his father. 

However, it is only within the last ten or twelve years that 
educators have begun to see more clearly than the earlier edu- 
cators the value of imitation and to express themselves more 
distinctly upon this subject. ' Miss Haskell gives a clear 

^Pedagogical Seminary, 3; 30. 
38 [38 



jg] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 39 

description to show the motor function of imitation. She is of 
opinion that imitation is the mode in which all motor impulses 
discharge themselves. The energy of the child must pass from 
potentiality to actuality, and it does so most easily and effici- 
ently by the path of imitation. ' Prof. Royce says: " The 
imitative functions in their proper and almost inextricable en- 
tanglement with our individual and temperamental functions 
are absolutely essential elements of all our mental development, 
of all our worth as thinkers, as workers, as producers." 
' Hazlitt is of the opinion that imitation gives pleasure to the 
learner by exciting curiosity and inviting a comparison between 
the object and the representation. It opens a new field for in- 
quiry and leads the attention to a variety of details and dis- 
tinctions not perceived before. It renders an object that is 
uninteresting in itself a source of pleasure, not by the repetition 
of the same idea but by suggesting new ideas, by detecting 
new properties and endless shades of differences. 3 Stout 
brings out a similar value for attention. Imitation is a special 
development of attention. Attention is always striving after a 
more vivid, a more definite, a more complete apprehension of 
its object. Imitation is a way in which this endeavor may 
gratify itself. * Smith considers imitation the means by which 
we come into sympathy with knowledge, sources of knowl- 
edge, and with our natural and social environment. In imita- 
tion there is an association of ideas or mental processes. It is 
a mode of perception or cognition. It is that form of percep- 
tion in which the mind interprets what is given in sensation. 
Imitation of idea by ideas is sympathetic assimilation. We 
make the inner experience of another our own experience. The 
method of truth in his opinion is sympathetic imitation. 

1 The Century Magazine, 26; 107. 
1 Round Table, p. n. 
' Manual of Psychology, II; 271. 
4 MelJiods of Knowledge, p. 1 70. 



40 IM1TA TION IN ED UCA TION [40 

Knowledge must consist in sympathetic imitation if it is a re- 
production of what constitutes objects. : In imitation, how- 
ever slavish it may appear, there is sometimes as it were a first 
soaring of the liberty of the child, of his aspiration after the 

ideal. 

2 Imitation marks the beginnings of education. The child 
who begins to imitate gives evidence of self consciousness. He 
notices the activity of another fellow being and recognizes that 
activity as proceeding from an energy or will power akin to the 
power which he himself possesses. He proves to himself the 
possession of that power by imitating the action in which he 
is interested, It is evident that imitation is a kind of spiritual 
assimilation, a digesting and making one's own of the acts of 
another. By means of imitation the child arrives at the 
fundamental principles which originated in action. Having 
found this in his own mind, he has his energy free and be- 
comes original. 3 Prof. James says " Man has always been 
recognized as the imitative animal par excellence . . . Each 
of us is, in fact, what he is, almost exclusively by virtue of his 
imitativeness. We become conscious of what we ourselves 
are by imitating others — the consciousness of what others are 
precedes — the sense of self grows by sense of pattern. The 
entire accumulated wealth of mankind — languages, arts, 
sciences — passes from one generation to another by social 
tradition, each generation simply imitating the last. Inven- 
tion, using the term most broadly, and imitation are the two 
legs, so to call them, on which the human race historically 
has walked." ' Tracy says, " The child's attention is very 
easy to get and very hard to hold. This double fact renders 
him capable of education, but at the same time makes his 
education a gradual process which must consist largely in the 

'Payne, Compayre's Introduction on Teaching, p. 221. 
2 Harris' Introduction to Taylor's Child Study, p. XI. 

* Talks to Teachers, p. 48. 

* Psychology of Childhood, p. 113. 



41 ] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 4! 

formation of right habits in him through imitation." Guyau 
says " by the judicious use of the child's imitative suggesti- 
bility, we may make of him almost what we please." Again, 
1 Guyau says, " All perception is more or less reducible to an 
imitation, to the creation within us of a state corresponding to 
what we see in others." 

2 Holman gives it as his opinion that many of the most 
valuable things the human race has discovered have been 
stumbled upon, as it were, by some simple imitation. It is 
quite likely that the origin of fire may be explained in this 
way. So it happens that individuals soon learn that it is 
worth while to look out for helpful examples or causes and 
effects and to expend considerable energy in trying to imitate 
them. Thus, imitation prompts the will to action and guides 
it by practical experience and knowledge. Observation and 
the resulting imitation produce many of the highest aids to 
progress and are thus utilized in the practical affairs of life. 
Prof. Butler says, in his lecture course, in discussing imitation, 
that it is one of the strongest social bonds. Good influences 
and good examples have value only in so far as they are 
imitated. Culture and refinement can be taught by example 
alone ; they can be learned only by imitation. Imitation 
makes up the major part of the child's life both in quality and 
in quantity, in his language, ideas and activity. 

A reference to some work that has been done in the study 
of imitation will further illustrate its importance and prepare 
for a better understanding of our next topic. 

Mr. E. H. Russel, of Worcester Normal, has published a 
volume which gives the records of children's imitations ob- 
served by the normal students. The volume gives more than 
1200 examples of imitation of children from one to twelve 
years old. The subject matter of this book has been worked 
over and expressed in graphic form in six charts by Miss Car- 

1 Education and Heredity, p. 14. 

2 Education, p. 185. 



4 2 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [42 

oline Frear. 1 Her purpose was to discover the trends and age 
tendencies in the imitative activity of children. In some of 
the charts she distinguishes three kinds of imitation — direct, 
play or dramatic, and purposive imitation. I shall not repro- 
duce the charts, but simply use per cents, to indicate the gen- 
eral position and directions of the lines on the charts. The 
ages of the children who were observed were one to twelve 
years. The per cents, here given show where the lines start 
the first year and where they end the twelfth year. However, 
they do not increase or decrease regularly as the per cents, 
seem to indicate. The first chart shows whom the child imi- 
tates the more at different ages — adults or other children: 
Adults, 82 per cent., 1st year; rises to 95 per cent, by 12th 
year. Children, 11 per cent., 1st year; falls to O per cent, 
almost, by 12th year. 

The second chart shows that the child's imitations are : 
Direct, 70 per cent. 1st year; fall to 8 per cent, by the 12th 
year. Play, 20 per cent. 1st year ; rises to 90 per cent, by 12th 
year. 

The third chart shows the child imitates an : Idea, 45 per 
cent. 1st year; rises to 80 per cent, by 12th year. Actual 
thing, 55 per cent. 1st year; falls to 20 per cent by 12th year. 

The fourth chart shows with whom the child plays : Alone, 
35 per cent. 1st year; rises to 70 per cent. 2d year; falls to 10 
per cent, by 12th year. Children, 9 per cent. 1st year ; rises to 
90 percent, by 12th year. Adults, 55 per cent. 1st year; falls 
to O per cent, by 12th year. 

The fifth chart shows what children imitate most and is 
based on play imitation : Action, 85 per cent. 1st year; falls to 
55 per cent, by 4th year; rises to 94 per cent, by 8th year 
Oral speech, 7 per cent. 1st year; rises to 26 per cent, by 4th 
year; falls to 23 per cent, by 8th year. Sound and action, 18 
per cent. 1st year; rises to 24 per cent. 6th year; falls to O per 
cent, by 8th year. 

1 Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 4, pp. 382-86. 



43] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TION 43 

The sixth chart is made out on a basis of direct imitation 
and shows that the child imitates : Action and speech, 53 per 
cent. 1st year; rises to 85 per cent.; falls to 80 per cent, by 
1 2th year. Action alone, 45 per cent. 1st year; falls to 12 per 
cent, by 12th year. 

The facts indicated by these charts are such as to com- 
mend them to careful consideration. I believe, on the whole, 
they will stand the test of reason and experience. The extent 
to which children imitate adults rather than other children, as 
shown in the first chart, is of practical value for teacher and 
parent. The second and third charts give results that are in 
evidence of the thought of this paper as to the nature and 
significance of imitation. It should be noted that in the first 
years of the child's life direct or perception imitation begins 
with 70 per cent, and decreases to 8 per cent, by the i?th year; 
that play imitation, which is a higher, less mechanical form, 
begins with 20 per cent, and rises to 90 per cent, in the same 
time. Imitation of an idea begins with 45 and rises to 80 per 
cent., while the more mechanical form, imitation of the actual 
thing, begins with 55 per cent, and falls to 20 per cent. The 
results in both these charts show that the faculty of intelligent 
imitation increases with the developing powers of mind. The 
progress is from tendency to imitate to ability to imitate, from 
a disposition to copy to power for originality. 

It was shown by Miss Frear's first chart that children imi- 
tate adults about fifteen times as much as they imitate other 
children ; and that chart gives the ratio only up to 12 years of 
age. At that age, the child practically ceases to imitate an- 
other child. It does not matter whether this is the actual 
ratio that exists or not. It doubtless is not. However, it 
does show the general tendency — that the child tends as it 
grows older to choose a more rational model, to select what it 
thinks is the best to imitate. This conclusion verfies and is 
verified by the experience of those who have either taught or 
observed children. Many teachers whom I have asked for 



44 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [44 

data on students imitating each other, say they could give a 
much larger number of examples of students imitating teachers. 
If this tendency to imitate adults more than their fellow 
students be kept in mind in considering the data below, we 
may get a more nearly correct perspective of the whole of 
student imitation. 

To get a more reliable notion of student imitation of their 
fellows, I selected about sixty high-grade boarding schools. 
Most of these were preparatory schools, quite a number of 
them rank as colleges, a few are colleges. These schools were 
selected with the thought that imitation found among their 
students would tend to prove much more for the nature and 
scope of imitation than the same amount of information found 
in ordinary public schools. Of course, in the boarding school 
it can more readily be detected, because the teacher sees more 
of the student's life, besides the students come in contact more 
with each other. It must be remembered that the influence 
of the teacher would be increased for similar reasons, and the 
ratio of tendency to imitate adults and fellow students would 
not be seriously affected. These schools will furnish more 
favorable evidence for imitation than public schools made up 
of all classes. For it is fair to suppose the students in these 
schools will more than average in matters of intelligence and 
individuality with public school pupils. If imitation tended to 
decrease with increased intelligence and culture, one would 
find little or no imitation in these schools. So, it may be 
stated that the presence of imitation in so far as it was found 
in these schools, would lend evidence in favor of our main 
thesis: (1) that imitation is a characteristic of the more in- 
tellectual as well as of the less intellectual, (2) that it is of 
much wider scope than we are apt to concede. 

The purpose of the questionnaires sent to these schools was 
" to find out whether there are certain characteristics whose 
possession makes a boy or girl likely to be imitated." Forty- 
five schools reported. Thirty of this number gave one or 



45] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 45 

more leaders of a larger or smaller group of students. Fifteen 
schools reported there was no such leader among their 
students. Just how man}' of these fifteen schools failed to 
interpret the questionnaire aright, I do not know. Some of 
them simply gave a negative answer to the first question. 
Others said there was no such leader of the whole school but 
that there were leaders of classes and small groups. Still a 
few seemed to take the term imitation in a menial sense. 
They indicated this by saying " Our students possess much 
personality. We take care that they have high ideals set be- 
fore them. A boy would be considered comtemptible here, 
who would imitate or ape another boy. We cultivate indi- 
viduality," and similar statements. Some of the statements 
clearly indicate that the leader we were inquiring for was in 
some of these schools. Others indicate the leader may have 
been there. One principal, of much experience and close 
observation, in sending in the report of his school said : " I 
should be glad to know if any report no." This implies there 
is a leader or leaders in every school. I believe his inference 
is correct. Sometimes the leadership is on a very small scale. 
It may be the leader has but one person manifestly in tow. 
To say the least, the number of schools in which there are no 
leaders is much less than fifteen, the number reported. 

Below the questionnaires are given with the answers tabu- 
lated after each question. A few reports did not seem to de- 
scribe any individual leader, but simply gave what the person 
making the report considered characteristics of leaders. These 
answers are not given. A few answers given in some of the 
reports could not be expressed in these definite terms. Such 
are not included in the tabulation. 

QUESTIONNAIRE I 

I. Is there now in your school any boy who is naturally 
imitated by other boys, or who may be called a leader among 
the boys? 



46 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [46 

Yes, 14 schools. 

No, 8 schools. Total reported, 22. 16 boys described. 

If your answer is no, please be sure to mark it No and re- 
turn the same to us, as it is very important to know the num- 
ber of schools where there is no imitation. 

If your answer is yes, we shall be very much pleased if you 
will answer the remaining questions, or as many of them as 
you can. 

2. How old is he ? 

Average age 16 years +. 

3. Are the boys who imitate him larger or smaller, as a rule, 
than he ? 

Larger, 1. 
Smaller, 3. 
About same, 1 1. 

4. Are they older or younger than he ? 

Older, 1. 
Younger, 6. 
About same, 9. 

7. Is he on the base ball team ? 

Yes, 7. 
No, 5. 

8. Is he on the foot ball team ? 

Yes, 10. 
• No, 4. 

9. Is he on any other athletic team ? 

Yes, 8. 
No, 6. 

10. Is he of strong emotional temperament, or is he of de- 
liberate, intellectual temperament? 

Emotional, 6. 
Intellectual, 2. 
Deliberate, 5. 
Nervous, 2. 



47] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA T10N 47 

11. Is he notable for boldness or daring? 
Yes, 8. 
No, 4. 
Fearless, 2. 
Courageous, 2. 
15. Has he any noticeable peculiarities, as stammering, 
lameness, crosseyedness, etc.? 
Yes, o. 
No, 16. 
The replies to other questions showed no marked difference 
between the boy imitated and his fellows in point of wealth, 
social position, fluency of speech, rank in class, mental ability, 
or moral strength. 



QUESTIONNAIRE II 

1. Is there now in your school any girl who is naturally 
imitated by the other girls, or who may be termed a leader 
among the girls ? 

Yes, 16 schools. 

No, 7 schools. Total reported, 23. 14 girls described. 
If your answer is no, please be sure to mark it No and re- 
turn the same to us, as it is very important to know the num- 
ber of schools where there is no imitation. 

If your answer is yes, we shall be very much pleased, if you 
will answer the remaining questions, or as many of them as 
you can. 

2. How old is she? 

2 — 13 years. 
4 — 16 years. 
2 — 17 years. 
5 — 18 years. 
1 — 20 years. 
Average age, 17 years. 



4 8 IMITA TION IN ED UCA TION [48 

3. Are the girls who imitate her larger or smaller, as a rule, 
than she? 

Larger, 1. 
Smaller, 4. 
Both, 4. 
Same, 4. 

4. Are they older or younger than she ? 

Older, o. 
Younger, 5. 
Both, 7. 
About same, 2. 

5. Does she spend more money or less than those who 
imitate her? 

More, 3. 
Less, 3. 

Pretends more, I. 
About same, 6. 

6. Has her family wealth, position or power more or less 
than the families of those girls who imitate her? 

Yes, 3. 

No, 6. 

Pretends more, 1. 

7. Is she distinguished in any athletic games or exercises ? 

Yes, 1. 
No, 6. 
■ Fond of, 4. 
Luxurious and idle, I. 

8. Is she of strong emotional temperament, or of deliberate 
intellectual temperament? 

Emotional, 9. 
Deliberate, 2. 
Intellectual, 3. 

9. Is she of marked timidity or of manifest strong desires? 

Assumes timidity, 2. 
Strong desires, 12. 



49] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TION 49 

10. Is she notable for fluency of speech in conversation ? 

Yes, 8. 

No, 2. 

Talks well, 2. 

Enjoys shocking hearers, 1. 

1 1. What approximately is her rank in class ? 

High, 3. 
Good, 2. 
Av., 6. 
Low, very, 2. 

12. In general, would you call her brighter, abler than those 
who imitate her? 

Yes, 5. 
No, 9. 

Of the 9, but confident, 1. 

but clever, 1. 

but assertive, 2. 

13. Has she any noticeable peculiarities, as stammering, 
lameness, crosseyedness, etc.? 

Yes, o. 
No, 14. 

14. Is she strong or weak morally ? 

Strong, 2. 

Av., 4. 

Weak, 3. 

High ideals, 1. 

Strong in her own faith, 1. 

15. Does she dress in a showy or gaudy manner? 

Gaudy, 2. 
Showy, 3. 
Well, 2. 
Good taste, 4. 
Quiet in dress, 1. 



jo IMITATION IN EDUCATION [j 

1 6. Does she sing well? 
Yes, 6. 

Comic songs, 2. 
No, 4. 

17. Does she play on any instrument well? 
Yes, 2. 

No, 9. 

18. Has she marked dramatic talent? 
Yes, 3. 

Good mimic, 1. 
No, 7. 

19. Is she distinguished for beauty of form, features, car- 
riage, voice? 

Yes, 6. Beautiful features, 1. 

No, 2. Beautiful carriage, 1. 

Beautiful form, 2. 

Fascinating manners, 2. 
These answers found in the questionnaires indicate some- 
thing of the nature of imitation, as was pointed out above. In 
the preparation of the questions, it was necessary to limit them 
to such acts as could be seen in the students. The internal, 
higher forms of imitation are not easily detected. This latter 
kind of imitation is manifested in much in the same way, and 
becomes evident in degree as growth of intellect and charac- 
ter show themselves. It is of slow growth, not easily ob- 
served, nor is its progress readily estimated in a given time. 
Recognizing these limitations of the questionnaire, we may still 
see in the answers given a tendency to imitate ideas rather 
than perceptions. The wide scope of imitation among stu- 
dents is very apparent. It must be remembered these were 
not the only leaders in these schools, nor was the imitation 
confined to that of leaders. This fact was pointed out in many 
of the reports received. Such statements as these in the re- 
ports indicate this : " Almost every class or group of students 
has its leader; it is difficult to choose the student most imi- 
tated." 



t !] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TION 5 ! 

The questionnaires bring out some of the characteristics of 
the leader more clearly than they indicate either the nature or 
the scope of imitation. The question why some people are 
leaders has long been one of much prominence and interest. 
It may be said in general terms that strong belief and enthu- 
siasm bring followers, that the leader has vigor of both mind 
and body, that he has often an over-mastering will expressed 
in strong desires. It may be seen in the questionnaires that 
most of the imitators of the leaders were younger than the 
leader or of about the same age as the leader. One interesting 
case is given where one boy is notably the leader of one other 
boy, who is both larger and older. The report says, " The 
leadership seems to be due simply to the superior energy and 
dash of the leader. The boy who follows is in all respects the 
superior — older, larger, more refined, having more money, a 
better student, and finer looking." In general, however, size 
and age may cause a boy or girl to be imitated, and boys may 
even be dominated by one older than themselves. It is a very 
serious matter for a boy to be placed in close relation with an 
older, coarser, or less refined person. 

Wealth and position do not seem to be elements of leader- 
ship. The fact that a large majority of the leaders among 
boys are very active in athletics is significant. This is not true 
of the girls. And the difference between boys and girls is seen 
in temperament. The boy leaders are more deliberate ; the 
girls, emotional, strong in desires, fluent in speech. The girls 
seem to choose their leaders more from outward appearances, 
as seen in dress, beauty, etc. The boys choose their leaders 
more for some inner characteristic, such as boldness, courage, 
energy. Ability and rank in school do not seem to be essen- 
tials for either boys or girls as leaders. It also seems that the 
leader must have no noticeable physical peculiarities. It is 
interesting to note the moral characteristics of the leaders. I 
do not know just how much the answers here do show. It is 
evident on the face of the reports that " morally strong" was 



5 2 I MIT A TION IN ED UCA TION r 5 2 

used in more than one sense by those who made out the 
reports. Some took morally strong as synonymous with 
morally good or bad ; others, morally strong to mean morally 
good. Yet the reports clearly show that the leader may not 
only be morally weak, but in very many cases the leader is 
specifically characterized as morally bad. This phase of lead- 
ership would be one of the most interesting and profitable 
studies for further investigation by parents and by teachers. 
Imitation is such an all-powerful factor in the realm of 
morality that it is well worth while to find more positive evi- 
dence in this matter. For example, it was stated in some of 
the questionnaires answered that the students who possess less 
will-power tend to choose morally bad leaders rather than mor- 
ally good leaders to imitate. Whether these statements were 
true or not, further study of this subject is needed ; for not only 
the individual life, but the community and social national life 
as well, in moral ideas, are so largely determined by leaders in 
business, in politics, in state, in war. Can we estimate the in- 
fluence of morally bad students or teachers? Much less can 
we estimate how many persons are infected by a morally bad 
political leader, state official, representative or senator in Con- 
gress. Any one who desires may, in a small way, get some 
idea of the influence of morally bad men in high places. To 
get some notion of this influence, one needs only to approach 
less prominent men than those cited, whose conduct may be 
called questionable. The matter of such conduct is no sooner 
raised than these less prominent men will refer you to a long 
list of more prominent, or equally prominent men, who de- 
ported themselves in a similar manner. This matter, how- 
ever — imitation and morality — will be considered somewhat 
more in detail in a later section of this paper. The following 
section will continue the study of imitation by the question- 
naire method in the training of teachers. 

The training of teachers affords a fruitful field for the study 
and application of imitation in education. It will be my pur- 



5 3] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 53 

pose here to show that imitation properly understood and 
applied may contribute much to the solution of practical prob- 
lems in the training of teachers. Among these problems there 
is the difficulty of securing natural conditions and ample op- 
portunity for pupil teaching, and the unwillingness of a suffi- 
ciently large number of persons to go through so long appren- 
ticeship in the training schools. And, in consequence of this 
unwillingness, very few teachers have any training at all. 
Then there is the economic problem. The term economic is 
used here in a liberal sense. It refers in part to the cost in 
terms of money, but it has reference especially to the cost in 
terms of time and energy. The waste in time and energy in 
the training of teachers is no small amount, as I shall try to 
show. 

The questions then to be considered are : How will imita- 
tion aid in the solution of the practical problems ? Where is 
this waste in training of teachers? How will imitation effect 
a conservation of time and energy ? To get the whole ques- 
tion before us and to indicate what imitation of an intelligent 
kind may contribute in answer to these questions, I shall sub- 
mit the results of two questionnaires. These questionnaires 
were placed in the hands of only such teachers as were in posi- 
tions to give reliable data. The answers came from many dif- 
ferent states and represent more than forty different schools 
and school systems. Form III, given below, was answered by 
24 grade teachers, 36 normal teachers, and 14 high school and 
college teachers. So far as the answers could be definitely and 
accurately tabulated, they are given after each question. A 
few teachers did not answer all the questions and some answers 
given could not be classified. 



54 



IMITA TION IN EDUCA TION 



[54 



QUESTIONNAIRE III 

1. Please indicate what courses you have taken as a student. 

Grade 
Teachers. 

a. In High School or its 

equivalent .... 19 

b. In Normal School, . 17 

c. In Training Class, . . 16 

d. How many years have 

you taught? ... 12 Av. 12 Av. 10 Av. 

2. Please classify your past teachers as accurately as you 
can according to the following points, giving under each point 
the number of men and of women, kind of school as grades, 
high school, normal school, etc., in which such teachers in- 
structed you : 

Kind of school. 





H. & 




Normal 


College 


Total 


Teachers. 


Teachers. 




32 


14 


65 


28 


5 


SO 


7 


2 


25 





No. of 


No. of 




Normal 


High 






Women. 


Men. 


Grades. 


School. 


School. 


College. 


a. 


Favorite teachers, 151 


I 7 8 


22 


55 


27 


30 


b. 
c. 


Good teachers, . 235 
Indifferent teach- 


246 


51 


49 


15 


68 






138 


45 


26 


34 


39 


d. 


Poor teachers, . 105 


87 


26 


22 


9 


3i 



3. Did you have any favorite teachers whom you did not 
consider skillful in methods of instruction? 

Yes, 36. 

No, 32. 
In government? 

Yes, 33. 

No, 32. 
In either instruction or government? 

Yes, 14. 

No. 26. 



55] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 55 

4. What characteristics made them favorites of yours ? 

Most of the answers were expressed in these terms — " kind- 
ness," "interest," "sympathy," " enthusiasm," "justice," "cor- 
diality," " sociability," " good manners," etc. 

5. Do you hold in mind any teachers as models in method 
of instruction and of government whom you more or less con- 
sciously strive to emulate ? 

Yes, 66. 
No, 3. 
If so, give such as follows : 

No. of teachers. No of models found in the 

a. Women, 73. r Grades, 30. 

b. Men, 124. Kind of J Normal 53. 

School I High School, 25. 
^College, 52. 

c. Add any whom you hold in mind as models in some 

one subject or in government alone as follows : 
No. of models found in 
Govern- ,- Grades, 30. 

No. of teachers. Subject ment. Kind of J Normal, 50, 

a. Women, 59 37 school j High School, 18. 

b. Men. 87 65 I College, 48. 

6. Did those teachers whom you hold as models differ 
from your other teachers in academic or professional acquire- 
ments ? 

Yes, 29. 
No, 18. 

7. Did they require more or less response from you as a 
student than other teachers ? 

More, 45. 
Less, 16. 

8. Were they more or less exacting in their requirements of 
you than the other teachers ? 

a. In the assigned work. 
More, 44. 



56 



IMITA TION IN ED UCA TION 



[56 



About same or less, 12. 

b. In conduct or deportment. 

More, 36. 

About same or less, 15. 
9. In the following list check all those things you are aware 
of imitating in your past teachers; use figures — 1, 2, 3 — to 
indicate something of the relative degree : 







No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 






Ans. 


Points 


Ans. 


Points. 


a. 


Assigning les- 






j. Calm demeanor 


37 


73 






33 


62 


k. Emotional de- 






b. 


Reviewing work 


33 


68 


meanor . . . 


11 


22 


c. 


Questioning pu- 






/. Petulancy . . . 


6 


IO 






48 


109 


n. Sarcasm . . . 


18 


38 


d. 


Work at black- 






0. Scolding . . . 


12 


18 




board .... 


37 


75 


Commending . . 


33 


65 


e. 


Using apparatus . 


11 


15 


/. Manifested sym- 






f. 


Beginning a sub- 






pathy .... 


30 


56 






29 


58 


q. Placing emphasis 






g- 


Movements about 






on given points 








room .... 


22 


44 


of subject matter 


40 


91 


h. 


Gestures . . . 


8 


9 








i. 


Facial expression 


11 


15 









10. In teaching the different subjects, as spelling, reading, 
history, etc., do you find you tend to imitate more in some 
than in' others ? If so, name the, say five, subjects of most 
marked imitation in a decreasing series. 

Answers varied too much to admit of any statement in brief 
form. 

11. Have you had any teachers considered good by you, 
whom you do not imitate? 

Yes, 46, 
No, 14. 

12. Representing all your imitative tendency by 100, mark 



57] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 57 

the per cent, of your imitation of the following types of 
teachers, so that the sum of per cents, will equal 100: 

a. Teachers of intellectual temperament, 64 Ans. Av. 

38 per. cent. 

b. Teachers of emotional temperament, 64 Ans. Av. 

19 per cent. 

c. Teachers of strong will, 64 Ans. Av. 43 per cent. 

13. As in question 12, mark the amounts of your tendencies 
to imitate : 

a. Your past teachers, 65 Ans. 49 per cent. Av. 

b. Model or other school work seen, 65 Ans. 51 per 

cent. Av. 
(13) Classified : Grade Normal High & College 

Teachers. Teachers. Teachers. 

21 Ans. 32 Ans. 12 Ans. 

a. 40 per cent. 63 per cent. 46 per cent. 

b. 60 per cent. 37 per cent. 54 per cent. 

14. Again, as in question 12, mark, as accurately as you can, 
the percentage of your professional acquirements from the fol- 
lowing sources : 

An estimate of 41 Answers of 25 teach- 
teachers who had ers who had train- 
no practice ing class work as 
school work. pupil teachers. 

a. Imitation of past teachers . . 25 per cent. 21 per cent. 

b. Imitation of school work seen, 22 " 23 " 

c. Theory and practice of educa- 

tion studies 20 " 20 " 

d. Practice school or class work 

done 33 " 36 " 

A few suggestions here may assist in getting the import of 
the questions and the significance of the answers. The pur- 
pose of question (2) was to find about what ratio the number 
of teachers in (c) and (d ) bears to the number in (a) and (b), 
and to find in what kind of schools these good or poor teach- 
ers are most abundant. It will be found that this ratio is ^ 



5 8 I Ml TA TION IN ED UCA TION [58 

nearly ; or the ratio of indifferent and poor teachers to the 
whole number of teachers is ^ nearly. This means inefficient 
teachers about 2 days per week during the school life of the 
pupils, or about 4 months in the year. The classification of 
teachers according to schools is not complete. Many answers 
could not be tabulated. Only those are given about which I 
could be sure. However, I do not think this affects the con- 
clusions that may be drawn. If we compare the kinds of schools, 
we find the schools rank in efficiency in this order : normal 
first, college second, grades third, high schools fourth. The 
normal ranks high above any other; the grades and high 
school rank very low, with little difference in favor of the 
former. 

The fifth question is probably the most valuable one in the 
list and the answers are most significant. It contributes the 
most reliable data for our subject. It gives actual facts and, it 
must be noted, it presents but the minimum. All unconscious 
imitation and all those undesirable models, of which we found 
so many in question (2) and which we find ourselves imitating 
in spite of our efforts not to do so, must be added to get the 
sum total. It is very difficult to get a just notion of the bad 
models imitated. In question (9), (k), (I), (m), and («) were 
introduced for this purpose. Most teachers would not care to 
put themselves on record in this matter. There were not many 
teachers to whom I could explain that an answer to one of 
these meant simply that they found themselves doing such 
things in imitation in spite of their desire not to imitate. Since 
most answers that I received to these four points came from 
the teachers to whom this explanation was made, I am led to 
believe that the actual facts would give a much larger number 
of answers and counts to these points, if the explanation had 
been given to all the teachers. In this question (9), the figures 
in the first columns represent the number of teachers who 
checked the respective points as imitated by themselves ; the 
figures in the second columns give the sums of the counts — 1, 



eg] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TION jg 

2, 3 — as the points were checked. These points were asked 
for not so much for the value of the subject matter obtained as 
to get some real data to show that imitation does exist on a 
large scale. However, these answers do indicate much besides 
this. They show that intellectual and moral characteristics of 
teachers are imitated as well as the more mechanical, that any 
phase of the teacher's acquired outfit may come through imi- 
tation. 

The answers to question (il) are of value. However, the 
value rests upon supposition. This hypothesis, that every 
good teacher will be imitated, is supported by abundant evi- 
dence throughout this paper. There is much evidence to show 
that a good model is always imitated and a bad model often 
imitated. If we take this view, the answers in this question in- 
dicate that the unconscious imitation, that should be added to 
the conscious imitation in question (5), is a large factor. And 
if to the unconscious imitation of good models, the conscious 
and unconscious imitation of bad models be added, we have a 
just estimate of the entire influence of imitation in the training 
of teachers. 

In questions (13) and (14), we have the four points to be 
considered in the training of teachers. In question (13), the 
answers of 65 teachers are given with the average per cent, for 
each point. The answers are also given according to the kind 
of teachers giving them. I am of opinion the results are fairly 
accurate, that normal teachers do imitate their former teachers 
more than either grade or high school and college teachers 
imitate theirs. Many high school and college teachers said in 
their answers that much of their imitation was of their associ- 
ates. The grade teachers have a much better opportunity, in 
many cases more need, to imitate work seen than normal 
teachers. In question (14) the purpose was to get the four 
points evaluated by several groups of competent teachers, that 
results might be compared. In the first column, the answers 
of 41 teachers are given in average per cents. These teachers 



60 2MI7A TJON IN ED UCA TION [fo 

had no practice school training. Their answers are based in 
(d) upon what they have gained by experience in school work 
while teaching. The validity of these answers may be ques- 
tioned. This would be especially true if they stood alone, but 
taken with three other groups they lend much to the weight of 
evidence. It should be borne in mind that none of the evi- 
dence in this paper, or all taken together, is thought to be 
sufficient to demonstrate anything. The kind of truth we 
are here seeking cannot be demonstrated in the strict sense 
of the term. This paper deals with probable and not with de- 
monstrable evidence ; and its purpose is to try to show where 
the weight of evidence lies in the influence of imitation in edu- 
cation. In this sense, and taken with the other data given, 
these answers have value. 

In the second column are the answers of 25 teachers who 
have had practice school training. The evidence given in this 
column is for this same reason more reliable than that in the 
first column. It should be noticed that the average per cents 
do not vary much in the two columns, and where there is a 
difference, it is found just where reason would look for it. 
This fact lends weight to the whole evidence. These four 
points will be found in the next questionnaire, so any further 
consideration of them may be deferred until we have seen the 
results in form IV. 

The purpose of Questionnaire IV. was to get evidence on 
the influence and value of imitation in the training of teachers 
from those who have had much experience in training schools. 
The answers here represent 24 training schools, and were 
given by 66 critic and model school teachers, and by 22 heads 
of departments, such as professors of education, principals of 
normal schools, and principals of training and model schools. 
Answers from professors of education and from principals of 
normal schools are included in the 22 heads of departments 
only where such professors and principals have under their 
direction a model or training school. The answers in this 



6n SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 6 1 

form are tabulated after each question as in the other forms. 
Most of them may be easily interpreted. 



QUESTIONNAIRE IV. 

Model School and Critic Teachers. 

1. Do your pupil teachers tend to imitate the teachers who 
give them their academic instruction, while doing your work 
in the training school ? 

Yes, 43. 

No, 00. 

Very little, 12. 

2. If you give model lessons, do they tend to imitate you ? 

Yes, 54. 

No, 00. 

Very little, 12. 

3. Check all of those things which you have noticed your 
pupils imitating. 

a. Mannerisms 33 k. Austerity 22 

b. Distribution of material .51 /. Slang 8 

c. Use of devices 57 m. Gesture 20 

d. Use of illustrative mater- n. Gentleness 24 

ial 50 0. Polish 13 

e. Dealing with disorder . . 50 p. Facial expression ... 4 

f. General plan of lessons . 47 q. Add any others you 

g. Correction of pupils' work. 25 may have noticed. 

h. Artificial dignity . ... 16 Moderation 1 

i. Naturalness 20 Academic method ... 1 

j. Tone of voice 30 

4. Do pupils who imitate more or less acquire good meth- 
ods of instruction and of government more or less rapidly and 
easily than those who do not imitate? 

More, 46. 

Less, 5. 

Depends on pupils, 6. 



These represent the 
average per cents, of 
44 answers by critic 
and model teachers. 



62 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [62 

5. In estimating a pupil teacher, do you regard favorably or 
unfavorably his power of imitating? 

Favorably, 52. 
Unfavorably, 5. 
If not too far, 6. 

6. Using 1, 2, 3 and 4 — 4 representing highest degree — 
mark the following points to indicate the sources of acquired 
skill as you see it in your pupil teachers. 

a. Imitation of former teachers. 17 % 

b. Imitation of model or other 

school work seen . . . 27 % 

c. Theory and practice studied. 22 % 

d. Practice school work done . 34 <f c 

~\ a. 28 % 
These same four points answered by 16 heads , 

' b . I'K tfc 
of departments representing 12 different institu- )■ 

tutions. 1 ,' ^ 

J d. 30 % 

7. Have you noted any difference between pupils coming to 
you from relatively poor schools and teachers, and pupils 
coming from relatively good schools and teachers, in the 
facility with which they acquire skill in teaching ? 

Yes, 50. 
No, 2. 

8. If there is any difference, to what would you attribute 
such ? 

The answers were in such terms as " better teachers," 

" better training," 
" better models." 

9. There is practice teaching under supervision followed by 
criticism of work; then, there is class-work done by a skilled 
teacher and seen by pupils under supervision of critic teacher, 
the lesson being discussed later in the class conducted by the 
critic teacher. In training teachers which of these two 
methods, calling them such, should receive more emphasis 
and time ? 



63] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 63 

First, . . . 45. f These are answers of critic and 

Second, . . 8. I model teachers. 

First, ... g. ( These are answers of heads of 

Second, . . 8. \ departments. 

10. If pupils who are to become teachers received their 
entire academic education under none but the most skillful 
teachers, do you think there would be any gain in time and 
energy in their professional training? 

Yes, 64. 

No, OO. 
The columns of figures in question (3) give the number of 
teachers who have observed their pupil teachers imitate in one 
or more of these ways. What was said of the purpose of ques- 
tion (9) in form III, and the value of the answers there given 
applies to this question and to these answers. 

In questions (4) and (5), we have the most reliable and sig- 
nificant data given in this form. The answers are decidedly 
in favor of a proper use of imitation in the training of teachers. 
They indicate much as to the nature and the possibility of im- 
itation. The experience and observation of those who an- 
swered these questions in the affirmative go to prove that 
imitation does bring out and develop originality, that good 
models imitated make development of individuality and per- 
sonality surer and more rapid in the training of teachers. And 
it should be noted here, that if this principle holds good in 
training teachers, it probably is equally valid in every other 
phase of education. 

The two remaining questions to which I desire especially to 
call attention are (6) and (9). Question (6) is the same one we 
had in form III. Here it is answered by 44 model school and 
critic teachers and by 16 heads of departments. The following 
tables repeat the answers of the 126 teachers to this question 
by groups for more convenient study and comparison : 



I 


2 


3 


4 


25% 


21% 


17% 


28% 


22% 


23% 


27% 


23% 


20% 


20% 


22% 


19% 


30% 


36% 


34% 


30% 


47% 


44% 


44% 


Si% 



64 IMITA TION IN ED UCA TION [64 

a. Imitation of former teachers, . 

b. Imitation of model and other 

school work seen, .... 

c. Theory and practice studied, . 

d. Practice school work done, . 
Total imitation by {a) and [b), 47% 
Total acquirements by (c) and 

(d) 53% 56% 56% 49% 

Column (1) gives answers of 41 teachers who had no prac- 
tice training. 

Column (2) gives answers of 25 teachers who had practice 
training. 

Column (3) gives answers of 44 critic and model teachers. 

Column (4) gives answers of 16 heads of departments. 

The answers, or average per cents., in these tables here re- 
peated do not vary more than would be expected. The per 
cent, of (p) in column (3) is high, but if we remember that 
model teachers place much emphasis upon model school work 
seen, the per cents would seem to represent the facts. It is 
significant that these estimates coming from four different 
groups of teachers, and from as many different standpoints, so 
nearly agree. It certainly adds much to the validity of the 
evidence and indicates that the true value of these four points 
in the training of teachers is somewhat approximately given. 
The truth as to the value of imitation is not far from these 
results. It will be seen that approximately T 5 T of the teacher's 
acquired fitness for teaching comes through imitation, that 
about T 6 T comes through the means now generally employed 
in the training of teachers. It has already been pointed out 
that unconscious imitation is a large factor in every activity of 
life. This large factor is not included in these results. How- 
ever, the results as here given are sufficient for our present 
purpose. 

Question (9) meant to recognize two factors in training 



65] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TION 65 

teachers — practice-work and criticism, and observation of 
model work and criticism. The aim was to find where the 
emphasis — the greater amount of time and energy — should be 
placed in a wise system of training. It will be seen that a large 
majority of those who answered this question prefer to place 
the emphasis upon practice work and criticism. This is true 
of the model and critic teachers. Of the 16 heads of depart- 
ments, 9 are more favorable to placing the emphasis on prac- 
tice work and criticism, and 8 favor the observation and criti- 
cism. It would seem the first method has the weight of 
evidence in its favor. This is in keeping with the other data 
given in the questionnaire. At most, these data represent but 
the minimum of imitation, and their value consists largely in 
this fact. There are at least two valid reasons for saying that 
not more than the minimum value is given. First, teachers 
cannot report their unconscious imitation, and it must be evi- 
dent that this factor is large. Secondly, an imitator is in such 
disrepute that no teacher would be disposed to give more than 
his minimum imitation, that is, the part of which he is pretty 
fully aware. As it will later appear, I wish to question whether 
the first method — that of practice teaching followed by criti- 
cism — should receive the more emphasis, whether it is more 
expedient than the second in the training of teachers. 

We may now return to the statement made in the first part 
of this section, that there is probably much loss of time and 
energy in the training of teachers. There is sufficient evi- 
dence in these two last questionnaires to render this more than 
probable. We found that about £ of the school life of those 
who are preparing to teach is spent under the tuition of indif- 
ferent and poor teachers. If we put the average school life of 
those preparing to teach at 12 years, which is a low estimate, 
approximately five years of this time is spent under very un- 
favorable conditions to say the least. Under such circum- 
stances, the waste of time and energy in the acquisition of 
knowledge is great. This is the only waste that is usually 



66 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [66 

recognized. Yet, I do not believe it is the largest item in the 
loss column for even the purely academic student. ' In the re- 
plies of 55 college presidents and representative men to the 
question : What is the best thing college does for a man ? in- 
fluence of personality everywhere dominates. How does per- 
sonality count for so much ? Why does it count for so much ? 
The mere knowledge of the personality of another individual 
does not differ from any other knowledge ; it has no more 
value for the student than other knowledge. Personality is 
valuable only in so far as the student partakes of, becomes 
like, that personality. But, how get it, catch it, come by it? 
There is but one way, and that is the simple, natural, easy way 
of imitation. The student imitates the interest, zeal, tempera- 
ment, methods of thought and work, and he thus gets the es- 
sentials of that personality. Whatever of worth there may be 
in any personality may be acquired, so far as such an acquisi- 
tion may be made, by imitation alone. Then for the future 
teacher, f of his teachers not only fail to furnish this desirable 
characteristic but they do furnish what is not desirable — a bad 
model that will also be imitated. Since the pupil under 
tuition is to do the same kind of work that he now sees so 
badly done, the amount of waste is multiplied many times. 
Progress is not only retarded, but these very things will have 
to be unlearned. To unlearn a thing is even slower and more 
difficult than to learn that thing aright. Some of those who 
filled out blanks giving data on this subject made at least two 
strong points that are applicable here. On the one hand, it 
was pointed out that it is more difficult to convince a person 
who has absorbed bad models that the way he learned is not 
the right way, than it is to teach him the right way. On the 
other hand, it was pointed out that many persons, after they 
are convinced of error and learn better methods of teaching, 
soon relapse into the old unpedagogical way of doing things. 

1 Phillips, in Pedagogical Seminary 6, 242. 



67] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TION 67 

Training-teachers say that many of their pupils who come 
from poor schools will soon relapse from what they learned in 
training and return to their old idols, I have seen some ot 
the difficulties of " convincing and unlearning," and I have 
known normal students to " relapse " when they leave the 
normal school to teach. 

The occasion for all this waste is the absorbing of bad 
models while pupils, from which the future teachers are not 
able to free themselves. There is still another source of waste 
in the training of teachers, or at least I am fully persuaded ot 
such fact. This was referred to in discussing question (9) in 
form IV. The tendency is now too prevalent to try to furnish 
too much by means of the training school, and to assign too 
little value to the imitation and criticism of good models seen. 
Training work may do one of two things. First, teachers 
may be so thoroughly drilled in the training school that the 
use of good methods in teaching has become a habit. Such 
drilling is unwise and a waste of time and energy. It is un- 
wise, because those who will become efficient teachers do not 
need so long training. There is a more expedient course to 
pursue, as we shall presently try to show. For those who 
will acquire and practice what the training school furnishes, 
only when such training has become habitual, it is also a 
waste in education. Such teachers must always be mechan- 
ical plodders. Their work in the school-room will never be 
commensurate with the cost of their training. Whatever of 
efficiency there is in such teachers may be secured more 
economically. 

The second thing that training may do for teachers is to 
enable them to see and appreciate the fundamental problems 
in teaching. This is as much as any training-school can 
afford to do. To attempt more than this is a waste to all 
concerned. It is a loss to those upon whom the practice is 
made, because we have already seen that the best thing a 
college can furnish — and the same thing is true of any other 



68 IMITATION IN EDUCATION fgg 

school — is the personality of the teacher. Pupil teachers can 
not exert the influence of a wholesome personality even when 
they possess it. The conditions cannot be made sufficiently 
natural. There is too much restraint. Personality must have 
perfect freedom if it is to come out as a good model for those 
who are taught. 

The questions : " What is the remedy ? How may some of 
this waste be obviated?" may now be answered. Better 
teachers would solve the whole problem. If pupils never saw 
any but good teaching, few, excepting the very indolent and 
stupid, would fall into bad methods. While it is not possible 
to have all good teachers, much could be gained if the evil 
effect of bad models was more vigorously insisted upon, if 
those who are thinking of becoming teachers were fully 
awakened to this fact. At least, much could be done in nor- 
mal schools. Although the normal schools seem to rank first 
in good models, there is still too large a number of indifferent 
and poor teachers in these schools. Another more practical 
remedy for the long apprenticeship in training-schools is more 
observation of good model work, under wise supervision and 
followed by expert criticism and discussion. This is the more 
economical way of training teachers. One model class will 
serve a whole class of pupil teachers for a given lesson. All 
that is needed in the way of pupil teaching is enough to test 
their observation and criticism, to bring out the practical diffi- 
culties and suggest the remedies. The chief value of pupil 
teaching is not to give the pupil an opportunity to flounder 
about until he hits upon a good method, and yet this is the 
logical conclusion of long training-school courses. The real 
value of pupil teaching is to bring out clearly and enforce 
deeply what should be imitated — the good models. It is to 
enable the pupil to recognize and choose the good models. 
All this may be secured with less training work, if we once 
come to recognize the value and significance of imitation, and 
if we wisely employ observation of good model-school work 



69] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TION 69 

and follow this observation with skillfully conducted criticism 
and discussion. 

There is still another substitute for much training-school 
work. This consists in good supervision of teachers after they 
have entered upon their work as teachers. The need of su- 
pervision is generally recognized, but the difference between 
good supervision and poor supervision, or none at all, is sel- 
dom noted. The most effective and economical training of 
teachers possible is to be had in actual school work under 
wise and efficient supervision. This training of regular teach- 
ers may be greatly facilitated if boards of education and super- 
intendents would have those teachers most in need of training 
see good teaching done. This observation should be followed 
by the same kind of criticism as suggested above in the obser- 
vation of model-school teaching. If superintendents and prin- 
cipals were properly qualified for their work, there is no phase 
of training-school work that might not be just as effectively 
done in any school whatsoever as in a training school ; and it 
might be done much more economically if the full influence 
and value of imitation were recognized and utilized. Those 
teachers who will become efficient would have greater freedom, 
and so become more efficient with less expenditure of time 
and energy ; and those who would never become highly effi- 
cient teachers could have their lull ability brought out by the 
use of more observation and criticism and less practice-teach- 
ing ; and in each case, good supervision would take up and 
continue the work of the training school. 

The waste in the training of teachers may be compared with 
the waste, pretty fully recognized, in general education. The 
best educational thinkers are of opinion that there is much 
waste in school work, because what is taught in school is not 
well articulated with actual life experience, because the cen- 
tral purpose and the aim of education are not manifested in the 
whole process. The loss of time and energy in the training of 
teachers is due to this same cause. The prospective teacher 



70 IMITATION IN EDUCATION ]j 

is brought up through a vicious system of schools and 
bad models. He becomes thoroughly saturated with bad 
methods ; then he is sent to a normal school where there are 
still many bad models, and he is asked to put away the bone 
and sinew of much of his former training, and to put on new 
muscle and fiber. And, this new body of thought and action 
must be built up out of nothing. He must not feed on and imi- 
tate good models, but he must be eminently original, he must 
work out his own individuality, which consists, so far as con- 
tent is concerned, in bad blood absorbed from bad models. 
When he goes out to teach, he is placed under superintend- 
ents and principals who are not models ; neither can they set 
a model, nor do they allow their teachers sufficient opportunity 
to see good teaching done. In this way, the training of teach- 
ers is not correlated with all that contributes to make good 
teachers, chiefly because the significance of imitation is not 
recognized and utilized. 

The value of imitation in teaching morality has already 
been referred to in discussing the answers to Questionnaires 
I and II. Let us now try to find what significance imitation 
has in moral education. An essential aim of education is to 
develop moral beings, to develop good character. There are 
many other desirable ends to be attained by education, but 
unless these are accompanied by good character education 
is incomplete. Any means of furthering or of achieving the 
purposes of education must lend itself to the inculcation of 
morality, if such means is to receive wide application and gen- 
eral recognition and favor. So, it is necessary to apply this 
test to imitation. It will be found that not only much of the 
superstructure of morality but also much of the cement that 
holds the foundation together is due to imitation. Prof. Royce 
says '" Our social morality depends in a large measure upon 
our regard for the will, interests, precepts, and welfare of our 

1 The Century Magazine, 26: 141. 



7i] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION y\ 

fellows. Now this regard is dependent upon our power by 
imitation to experience and to comprehend the suggested will, 
interest, and authority about us. Imitation is thus funda- 
mental in the development of conscience." This is true of 
the individual conscience ; the regard for others is extended by 
experience and becomes the cement of society. 

The value of example over precept is well recognized in 
moral training. There is a vitalizing force in example, not 
found in precept. The former stays with one, insinuates itself 
in consciousness in cases of emergency, is more easily used 
when there is need. Why is this true ? One reason for its 
staying quality is the concreteness of the knowledge thus ac- 
quired. But the final test of all knowledge is in its applica- 
tion. Can it be used ? Will it be used ? It is in the facility 
with which example may be used that its superior value lies. 
This tendency and facility in using example consists in the 
fact that it may be imitated. 

Both the strength and weakness of example in moral teaching 
consist in the ease with which example is controlled. ' Preyer 
points this out in saying " Timid and affected mothers have 
timid and affected children, for the reason that their own be- 
havior, their frequent startings, outcries, flights, are imitated. 
In like manner, courageous mothers have courageous children. 
True, temperament has much to do with this matter, but for 
teachers imitation is of more value since it may be controlled." 
Whether we are timid and shrinking or calm, courageous, and 
self-possessed, depends very largely on the example set by our 
associates and teachers for us to imitate. That calm demeanor 
may be imitated is well known. It is also a lamentable fact 
that Americans do not give sufficient attention to this method 
of teaching and learning. We are too much given to "jerk 
and snap," to talk in a high key and to look animated, even 
excited. 2 Prof. James says : " There is only one way to im- 

1 Infant Mind, p. 12. 

2 Talks to Teachers, p. 217. 



72 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [j 2 

prove ourselves, and that is by some of us setting an example 
which the others may pick up and imitate till the new fashion 
spreads from east to west. If you should individually achieve 
calmness and harmony in your own person, you may depend 
upon it that a wave of imitation will spread from you, as surely 
as the circles spread outward when a stone is dropped into a 
lake. Become the imitable thing and you may then discharge 
your minds of all responsibility for the imitation." 

By reference to Questionnaire III, question (9), it may be 
seen how large a factor imitation of " calm demeanor " may 
be. What may be done by imitation of right models is illus- 
trated by the experience of a teacher given in this question- 
naire. This is the experience: "I imitated a principal whom 
I taught under. I had an intense admiration for her self- 
possession, coolness and tact. I find by forcing myself to be 
like her I have ceased to be nervous, to talk in a high key, 
or to antagonize strange or new pupils." So much has been 
said of example and its possible influence to show how im- 
itation becomes an important element in determining conduct. 
It should be observed that the value of imitation in molding 
general behavior measures its value as a method for teaching 
morality. 

In speaking of social influences 1 David Kay says they "may 
be divided into two kinds, the direct and the indirect. The 
child instinctively imitates the manner of the teacher, and 
copies the example of the parent. The influences we uncon- 
sciously exert go streaming from us in all directions, though 
in channels we do not see, poisoning or healing around the 
roots of society and among the hidden wells of character." 
The best thing written upon the indirect teaching by the 
imitation of example, and something every teacher should 
read, is an article by Huntington 2 " Unconscious Tuition." He 

1 Education and Educators, p. 383. 
1 School Room Classics, 1 : 5-45 . 



73] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TION 73 

says " unconscious tuition is that part of a teacher's work 
which he does when he seems not to be doing anything at his 
work at all." He sets forth his educational creed on uncon- 
scious tuition, or the unconscious teaching that goes to build 
up good character, in three propositions : (1) " That there is 
an educating power issuing from the teacher, not by voice or 
by immediate design, but silent, involuntary, as indispensable 
to his true work as any element in it ; (2) That this uncon- 
scious tuition is yet no product of caprice or of accident, but 
takes its quality from the undermost substance of the teacher's 
character; (3) That as it is an emanation flowing from the 
very spirit of his own life, so it is also an influence acting in- 
sensibly to form the life of the scholar." The implication 
here is that the teacher is an example, a model, and that the 
pupil will imitate him not only consciously, but to an even 
greater degree unconsciously. 

Finally, if we go to the Great Teacher of morality and in- 
quire what was his method for teacher and learner, and seek 
to find why the world has been charmed for all these cen- 
turies, we shall find the method was example in teacher and 
imitation in followers. Aside from the soundness and the 
fascination of his doctrine, much of the force of his teaching 
was due to his method. His more direct teaching was almost 
wholly by example in the form of parable. His power in the 
world consists largely in the example of his own life set for 
our pattern. His method for those who would learn of him 
may be summed up in his command, " Follow Me." It was 
no mere play of the imagination that caused ' Browning to put 
these words in the mouth of Tiburzio, the Pisan commander : 

" A people is but the attempt of many 
To rise to the completer life in one; 
And those who live as models for the mass 
Are singly of more value than they all. 
. . . Keep but God's model safe, new men will rise 
To take its mould." . . . 

1 Luria — a Tragedy. 



74 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [74 

In discussing the significance of imitation in education, we 
have seen some of the work that has been done to bring out 
this significance, and what some prominent educators have 
thought of the value of imitation. We have also seen some- 
thing of the influence and significance of imitation among stu- 
dents in school, in the training of teachers, and in moral teach- 
ing. We shall now try to find what value imitation may have 
in studying language and composition, in getting and using 
methods for doing things, in the general process of learning — 
the acquisition of knowledge — and finally point out some of the 
dangers and limitations of imitation in education. We shall 
first consider the importance of imitation in the study of lan- 
guage and composition. 

The influence of imitation as a factor in developing mind 
may be seen in the development of language. 1 Language is 
a product of social imitation. When we remember that most 
of our rational thinking is done in language, we may more 
clearly see how imitation in the development of language is at 
the same time giving not only the form, but a model of the 
method and spirit of rational thinking. Without imitativeness 
there is no language and no higher development of thought in 
any of us. Only the imitative animal can become rational. 2 It 
may be said that language is at first instinctive in both the 
lower animals and in man. This instinctive phase consists 
simply in making sounds. These sounds are changed into 
language by imitation. The sound or word is associated with 
certain objects, ideas or images. 

The progress in language is largely a matter of defining its 
early vagueness, by extending, defining, and rendering it more 
definite and clear. It is a notorious fact, known to all teach- 
ers, that progress is rapid, and results good in language just in 
proportion as the models the child has to imitate are good. It 

1 The Century Magazine, 26, 141. 

1 Tracy, Psychology of Childhood, p. 156. 



75] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 75 

is because imitation plays so large a part in language that the 
chief difficulty exists in teaching composition and literature. 
While these subjects are among the most valuable in any 
course of study, they are also among the most difficult to teach. 
The reason for this great difficulty is that in most subjects the 
teacher has a clear field to begin with. The pupil has little or 
nothing to unlearn. Still more important, the teacher's work as 
a teacher is not counteracted at every point by bad models 
imitated. In language, the pupil, on entering school, must 
unlearn much. This is always a slow and difficult process. 
Besides, the teacher's efforts to advance the pupil are hindered 
at every step by bad models in speech and in literature. A 
distinguished teacher of language of this city recently said in 
my hearing that his own children made progress in language or 
failed to do so just in proportion to the time they were associ- 
ated in play, etc., with those who used good or bad language. 
What does this mean? It means, as was said above, that the 
models set for us determine our language and that imitation is 
the strongest factor. The same thought is expressed when ed- 
ucators say language in our public schools must not be taught 
by special teachers. Every teacher must teach language. The 
thought is that the child must have none but good models, 
must live in an atmosphere of good models, must breathe in 
and absorb and imitate these models. 

And here is found the essential thing in imitation. The 
model must not be something tacked on to the outside. It 
must be absorbed, digested, assimilated to be worked out and 
expressed in intelligent imitation. The matter of substance, 
some real stuff to think, speak, and write about, is not over- 
looked. The ideas, the knowledge, must always precede the 
expression of such ideas or knowledge. Yet, it is one thing 
to have something to say and it is quite another thing to be 
able, to say that something. It is with the expression that we 
are now concerned, and it is here that imitation plays its im- 
portant part in language. Imitation in language is at first 



76 I MIT A TION IN ED UCA T10N [76 

conscious. It requires much effort and much adjustment. 
Even in the pronunciation of words, much more in finding 
their exact meaning and definite use, there is much adjustment 
and adaptation by trial and error. The child often exhibits 
inventive powers in the modification of words to adapt the 
sound to ' what it can pronounce. This is still more notice- 
able in the use of words when it extends their application to 
unnamed objects, actions, and qualities. This conscious imi- 
tation is notable in adults in learning to write or to compose. 
Every writer, small or great, builds up his style from the small 
or great that preceded him. 

The value of imitation in teaching composition is too often 
overlooked. This is especially true of young teachers and 
still more strikingly manifested in those teachers who have a 
ready intuition and who have easily developed good literary 
tastes. This holds not only for teachers of rhetoric and com- 
position, but it may be observed in most teachers who readily 
acquired their academic training. Such persons usually ac- 
quired their training with greater facility because their brains 
were more plastic, more sensitive to impressions. By virtue 
of their plasticity of brain, they got their models more easily, 
imitated them less consciously. They more fully absorbed 
their models and consequently were not aware of imitating. 
They did not imitate less but more. It was, however, a higher 
order of imitation. So it happens that such teachers do some 
very strange things and teach some very paradoxical doctrine. 
They say — do not imitate, be original. But they can never 
tell you how to be original. When they are closely pressed 
by pupils for an answer to this very puzzling thing, they will 
say : " Oh, you must just feel it, catch it," and such vague 
sayings. When translated into descriptive terms, what does 
this " feeling it " and " catching it " mean ? Neither more nor 
less than unconscious imitation. These teachers would have 

1 Tracy, Psychology of Childhood, p. 138. 



77] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 77 

their pupils absorb their models, saturate themselves, as it 
were, with the best models. Later they can imitate these 
models in such a way that it will not appear as imitation. 
Whatever of individuality, of personality, the pupil may 
possess will color, reclothe, and tend to remove the too 
familiar garb of the model. This, however, as we pointed out 
in discussing the nature of imitation, is the essential character- 
istic of all the higher forms of imitation. 

This same thought of unconscious imitation must have been 
in the mind of Dr. Johnson ' when he said : " Whoever wishes 
to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant 
but not ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the vol- 
umes of Addison." In this sentence imitation is quite as im- 
plicit as it is made explicit by Prof. Hinsdale. 2 He says, 
" the key words to the language-arts are imitation and prac- 
tice, models and correction. The teacher's practical problem 
is to correlate the two main ideas that these words express." 
These two ideas are models and imitation, practice and correc- 
tion. "Both elements are called for ; but models and imita- 
tion come first, and they are of the greater value." Walter 
Raleigh 3 says " Imitation of the masters, or some one chosen 
master, and the constant purging of language by a severe 
critcism, have their uses not to be belittled." These two 
passages quoted agree in assigning a prominent place in 
composition to imitation. In what follows, we shall see 
that literary men of note did learn to write by imitating the 
masters. 

While Browning never set himself to work to develop a lit- 
erary style of his own by imitating classic models, his earliest 
poem " Pauline" is thoroughly saturated with Shelley. Pope 

1 Lives of the Poets, p. 248. 

* Teaching the Language Arts, p. 198. 

* Style, p. 125. 



» 8 IMITA TION IN ED OCA TION [7 8 

built up his style very largely by modifying Dryden. He 
also imitated Chaucer and others. Johnson 1 says " Pope first 
learned to write by imitating printed books." Few literary 
men exhibit more originality than does Tennyson ; yet, we 
need no biography to see how he developed his style. " The 
Poems by Two Brothers" are Byronic ; his prize poem " Tim- 
buctoo"is distinctively Miltonic. Later he imitated Keats 
and others. However, his later poems are his own. Out of 
all this imitation came the style Tennysonian. The very ad- 
mirable style of Defoe' in " Robinson Crusoe" is due to his 
successful imitation of Bunyan. It is said Bunyan was the 
first writer to make his style engaging to the reader by a 
happy mixture of narration and dialogue. Defoe also imitated 
the same method in his " Moll Flanders." Shelley 3 imitated 
Leigh Hunt in an " attempt to add a familiar levity of style to 
variety of movement in his metre." 

To see more clearly how a literary style may be built up 
by imitating the masters, let us examine the method of a tew 
men. We shall take Keats, Franklin and R. L. Stevenson. 
These are chosen not because they are the worst offenders, 
but because they are regarded as having attained a good lit- 
erary style of their own, and because we know most about 
their method. Keats' first attempt to write anything substan- 
tial in poetry was his " In Imitation of Spencer.* He got his 
model from the " Faerie Queene." Spencer's fairyland en- 
chanted him, caused him to breathe in anew world, to become 
another being. He attempted to imitate it and succeeded. 
" At first he seems to have worked steadily enough along 
lines which others had marked out for him." It is clear his 

1 Lives cf the Poets, p. 374. 

! Autobiography of Franklin (Cassell's Library), p. 28. 
3 Morley's Keats {English Men of Letters), p. 32. 
* Morley's Keats {English Men of Letters), p. 13. 



79] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TION yg 

earliest verses were modeled more on modern writers. In his 
ode " To Apollo" he seems to imitate Gray. The rhythmical 
form of " Endymion " is due to the example set by Hunt. 
" The Rimini" is the model. Keats used the " Faerie Queene" 
and " Rimini" conjointly as models ; he tried to embody the 
spirit of the former in the metre of the latter. By the time 
Keats was twenty- four, or a little later, he had thrown off most 
of the eighteenth century stiffness which clung to his earlier 
efforts. Yet he did not still adopt a vocabulary of his own, full 
of license. This he caught later from the Elizabethans and 
from Milton. 

A more instructive account is given by Franklin in his 
Autobiography} His first reading consisted largely in polemic 
literature. This literature was chiefly of the religious kind of 
which his father's library consisted. This reading gave him a 
bias for disputation, somewhat dogmatic. The early tendency 
to dogmatism is discovered and overcome by imitation, as we 
shall see. In these discussions, it was pointed out to him that 
he was lacking " in elegance of expression, in method, and in 
perspicuity." About this time he met with a volume of the 
Spectator. He says, " I read it over and over and was much 
delighted with it. I thought the writing was excellent, and 
wished, if possible, to imitate it. With that view I took some 
of the papers, and making short hints of the sentiments in 
each sentence, laid them by a few days, and then, without 
looking at the work, tried to complete the papers again, by 
expressing each hinted sentiment at length, and as fully as it 
had been expressed before, in any suitable words that should 
occur to me. Then I compared my Spectator with the orig- 
inal, discovered some of my faults, and corrected them." 
Here he discovered the need of a stock of words and a readi- 
ness to recollect and use them. To overcome this he " took 
some of the tales in the Spectator and turned them into verse ; 

1 Cassell's Library Edition, p. 16-21. 



80 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [80 

and after a time, when I had pretty well forgotten the prose, 
turned them back again." He sometimes jumbled his collec- 
tion of hints into confusion, and then, after a time, would en- 
deavor to reduce them to the best order before he began to 
form the full sentences and complete the subject. " This was 
to teach me method in the arrangement of the thoughts." He 
then compared his own arrangement with the original and 
corrected his faults. How this brought out his own power 
of expression is seen in this observation. "But I sometimes 
had the pleasure to fancy that, in certain particulars of small 
consequence, I had been fortunate enough to improve the 
method or the language." How he overcame his early ac- 
quired dogmatism and developed the habit of expressing him- 
self " in terms of modest diffidence " is seen in his imitation 
of Socrates. " While I was intent on improving my language," 
he says, " I met with an English grammar having a sketch on 
the Arts of Rhetoric and Logic in the Socratic method ; later 
I procured Xenophon's Memorable Things of Socrates, con- 
taining many examples of the same method. I was charmed 
with it, adopted it, dropped my abrupt contradictions and 
positive argumentation, and put on the humble inquirer." He 
further says, " I continued this method some few years, but 
gradually left it, retaining only the habit of expressing myself 
in terms of modest diffidence. This habit has been of great 
advantage to me." Thus we see Franklin acquired not only 
an elegance of style, but also a method of thought by means 
of imitation. His imitation was of a high order and developed 
in him originality. 

The case of Stevenson's learning to write is even more 
pertinent than that of Franklin's. There are two stages in the 
development of the style of Stevenson. The value of imitation 
is brought out by contrasting these two stages or methods. 
As will be noted later, in the first method, he attempts to store 
his mind with matter about which to write. Then he tries to 
give expression to these ideas and thoughts without having in 



8l] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 8 1 

mind any definite model to give his expression form. In the 
second method, to which attention is especially invited, he did 
have models of style before him and consciously tried to imi- 
tate them. To bring out the contrast of these two methods 
and to emphasize the significance of imitation, we can not do 
better than to give his own account and his observations upon 
imitation in learning to write. 

He says : ' " I was always busy on my own private end, 
which was to learn to write. I always kept two books in my 
pockets, one to read and one to write in. As I walked, my 
mind was busy fitting what I saw with appropriate words ; 
when I sat by the roadside, I would either read, or a pencil 
and a penny version-book would be in my hand to note down 
the features of the scene or commemorate some halting stanzas. 
Thus I lived with words. It was not so much that I wished 
to be an author as that I wished to learn to write. Descrip- 
tion was the principal field of my exercise, but I worked in 
other ways also ; often accompanied my walks with dramatic 
dialogues and in writing down conversations from memory 
and in keeping diaries." 

This, as indicated above, was his first plan. It is also the 
method of teachers of composition, for teachers are usually shy 
of imitation. Of this first method he says: " This was all very 
excellent. And yet this was not the most efficient part of my 
training. Good though it was, .it only taught me the lower 
and less intellectual elements of the art, the choice of the 
essential note and right word. And regarded as training, it 
had one grave defect, for it set me no standard of achieve- 
ment." Let it be observed here that he always kept two 
books in his pockets ; that he was a very zealous reader. It 
must certainly be admitted that he had some model more or 
less consciously in mind. The thing of importance is, this 
was not sufficient in itself. The model must be more clearly 

1 Stevenson's Memories and Portraits, pp. 55-64. 



g 2 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [82 

defined, and in order to bring out his undeveloped literary- 
powers it is necessary to make an effort to imitate the model. 

He continues by saying: " There was, perhaps, more profit, 
as there was certainly more effort, in my secret labors at 
home. Whenever I read a book or a passage that particularly 
pleased me, I must sit down at once and set myself to imitate 
that quality of propriety or conspicuous force or happy dis- 
tinction in style. I was unsuccessful and I knew it, but I got 
some practice in these vain bouts in rhythm, in harmony, in 
construction, and in coordination of parts. I have thus played 
the sedulous ape to Hazlitt, to Lamb, to Wordsworth, to 
Browne, to DeFoe, to Hawthorne, to Montaigne, to Baude- 
laire, and to Obermann. " Robin Hood," a tale in verse, took 
an eclectic middle course among the fields of Keats, Chaucer, 
and Morris. " He says he wrote one early production first in 
the style of Hazlitt, then after Ruskin, and finally in imitation 
of Browne." This was the method of Stevenson in learning 
to write. How successful the plan was, his writings are suffi- 
cient testimony. 

Let us now note the estimate Stevenson made of imitation 
in learning to write. In speaking of the method by imitation, 
he says " That, like it or not, is the way to learn to write. It 
was so Keats learned, and there never was a finer temperament 
for literature than Keats's; it is so, if we could trace it out, 
that all men have learned. Perhaps I hear some one cry out: 
" But that is not the way to be original !" It is not ; nor is there 
any way but to be born so. Nor yet, if you are born original, 
is there anything in this training that shall clip the wings 
of your originality ? There can be no one more original than 
Montaigne, neither could any be more unlike Cicero; yet no 
craftsman can fail to see how much the one in his time tried 
to imitate the other. Burns is the very type of a prime force 
in letters ; he was of all men the most imitative. Shakespeare 
himself, the imperial, proceeds directly from a school. Nor is 
there anything here that should astonish the considerate. 



83] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 83 

Before he can tell what cadences he truly prefers, the student 
should have tried all that are possible ; before he can choose 
and preserve a fitting key of words he should long have prac- 
ticed the literary scales," and, he adds, " it is the great point 
of these imitations that there still shines beyond the student's 
reach his inimitable model." 

I have dwelt at this length on language and composition 
not only because of their large value in education, but also 
because of their peculiar fitness to illustrate the educational 
significance of imitation. The nature of intelligent imitation, 
its selective nature in choice models, the progressive nature 
of the model ever becoming more refined, more ideal, could 
not easily be made more apparent. That so many literary 
men of originality and genius have made so large use of imi- 
tation in the development of their style and method of thought, 
seems to lend much evidence in favor of a more liberal use 
of imitation and its methods in other lines of education. The 
claim has already been made in this paper, and I wish to 
emphasize it here again, that while imitation in itself is not 
originality, it is the rational method of developing originality 
in the individual. It will not bring out more than there is in 
him ; but it will set a bait in the shape of an inviting model 
that will lure him on to surpass himself and still entice him on 
to repeat the wholesome process of outstripping himself. 

We shall next inquire into the value of method, and try to 
find what significance imitation has in the acquisition and 
application of method and in the process of learning. By 
method, I mean the way of doing things, from learning how 
to observe, how to put a question to nature or to a child or an 
adult, how to reach a sound conclusion, up to how to behave, 
how to act in the presence of new environment. In this sense, 
the acquisition of method is the most valuable thing that edu- 
cation can furnish the individual or the race. It is true the 
acquisition of knowledge and of method usually go together, 
but they are quite distinct and separate things. Much knowl- 



84 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [84 

edge may be and often is acquired with a minimum of method. 
In such cases, we have the impracticable man. And here it 
must be insisted upon that method is not theory. On the 
other hand, much method may be acquired with a minimum 
of what is called useful knowledge. Prof. Davis, 1 of Harvard, 
says science teaching depends for its value upon the method 
used by the teacher rather than upon the subject matter. 
Karl Pearson 2 says, in speaking of the value of science in edu- 
cation, " The unity of all science consists alone in its method, 
not in its material. The true aim of the teacher must be to 
impart an appreciation of method and not of knowledge 
of parts. Personally, I have no recollection of at least 90 per 
cent, of the facts that were taught me at school, but the notions 
of method which I derived from my instruction in Greek 
grammar (the contents of which I have long since forgotten) 
remain in my mind as a really valuable part of my school 
equipment for life. The first claim of scientific training, its 
education in method, is to my mind the most powerful claim 
it has to state support. The scientific habit of mind is an 
essential to good citizenship." 

Having before us something of the claim and value of 
method, we may ask : How is method acquired? What in- 
fluence does the imitative process have in acquiring method? 
The method is not acquired in quite the same way as knowl- 
edge. The former is learned not so much by direct tuition as 
the latter. The what is learned more by precept, the how by 
example. To get a method we must first see some one use 
that method, or we must learn how some one used the method. 
Next, the method must be sufficiently prominent to arrest our 
attention. Finally, the method must recommend itself as ex- 
pedient. These are, however, the steps we found to obtain in 
the imitative process, but when they have once been taken,. 

1 Educational Review, xiii, 429. 

2 Grammar of Science, Introduction. 



85] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 85 

imitation is as sure to follow as gravitation is sure to pull 
down an unsupported body. If we take a type of persons 
of less plastic brain than that we have supposed, or a case 
where the method is less prominent or more difficult to 
acquire, imitation is still the essential factor in learning the 
method ; for under these conditions, the method of work is 
given the student and it is followed or imitated until its use 
becomes a habit. 

On the formation of this mental habit is based the claim 
of science in the development of mind. The data in science 
readily lend themselves to a method that may be often re- 
peated, often imitated. The question may be asked, why does 
the scientific method have so large value? The answer to 
this may be found in Mr. Pearson's own experience and obser- 
vations. The value of the method he got from his teacher 
of Greek consisted not in the further study of Greek, but in 
the fact that the method thus obtained could be carried over 
into other fields of study and of action. The plea made for 
science in the development of citizenship is not that the citizen 
may have more knowledge of science, or even continue his 
study of that subject. It is made chiefly on the ground that 
method obtained in science can be used, imitated, in every 
sphere of life. Here we may see how important a method 
of thinking, doing, really is ; but what is more pertinent to our 
subject, we find that method is not only learned by imitation, 
but also that the application, the general use that may be 
made of method once acquired, depends upon imitation. The 
student of science learns how to find and collect data, how to 
classify the data, and how to eliminate personal bias and to 
draw sound conclusions. This whole process can be applied, 
imitated, in the practical affairs of life. 

Method as an imitative process is prominent in the acquisi- 
tion of knowledge. Every teacher who is a close observer 
finds that many students flounder and fail to get good results 
from their work because they have not learned how to study. 



gg I MIT A TION IN ED UCA TION [86 

Very few students discover methods of study for themselves, 
and many of those who do make such happy hits and lucky 
finds pay for it dearly in time and energy. Most students get 
their best methods of study either from their teachers or from 
their fellow students by imitating. This is noticeable in the 
university as well as in the lower schools. But, we shall not 
pursue the matter of method and imitation further. Sufficient 
has been said to indicate their significance in education We 
shall now make inquiry into the nature of the process of learn- 
ing, to find to what extent imitation contributes to the acqui- 
sition of knowledge. This is such a many-sided question that 
we can not present more than one phase. But, in so far as the 
subject is dealt with, fundamental elements alone will be con- 
sidered. The states of mind conducive to learning and some 
of the activities of mind in the educational process will be 
briefly reviewed. 

Among the states and activities of mind, motive would 
come first. There must be motive in order to affect the will. 
By an effort of the will, conscious or unconscious, the mind is 
brought into a state called attention. By the exercise of atten- 
tion acquisition and apprehension will result. What has been 
apprehended and acquired may be reproduced, elaborated, and 
then appear as thought, understanding, power, character. 
Motive and attention may be considered under one term — 
interest. James ' says, " Whoever treats of interest inevitably 
treats of attention, for to say that an object is interesting is 
only another way of saying that it excites attention." Oster- 
mann 2 is of the same opinion, that interest may be regarded 
as the exclusive cause of attention. In like manner, in educa- 
tion interest must supply the motive if teaching is to be pro- 
ductive of good results. So, we may inquire, What is interest? 
How is it secured ? All interest depends on feeling, and that 

1 Talks to Teachers, p. ioo. 

* Interest in its Relation to Pedagogy, p. 141. 



87] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION %j 

in a twofold sense, either that it is itself a feeling or that it is 
developed from feeling by means of other psychical processes." 
It is opposed to indifference and repulsion. This feeling or 
interest is acquired in one of two ways. Either it is borrowed 
or the intrinsic nature of the subject matter supplies it. In a 
given case both borrowed and intrinsic interest may be present, 
but for our present purpose we shall consider them separately. 

Borrowed interest may be illustrated in its purest type in 
the motive to read a book about which, as to its contents, you 
know nothing. Some friend or person in whom you have 
confidence advises you to read a certain book, but tells you 
nothing about the contents of the book. You immediately 
make a note of the book, either to be bought or to be secured 
at the library. This interest in the yet unknown subject 
matter is lent you. It will cause you to secure the book and 
will last for some time in beginning to read. Much of the in- 
terest in school work, in beginning subjects, and much of the 
interest in practical affairs is of this kind. It is literally bor- 
rowed. A little different variety of the same type of interest 
is seen, if you are not only asked to read the book but some 
hint of the contents is also given you. Here the interest is 
partly borrowed and partly intrinsic. The intrinsic element is 
present so far as the contents of the book appeals to you ; but 
the interest is chiefly borrowed and remains such until you 
begin the study and have acquired some clear ideas of the 
subject matter. 

How much of the interest that enables children to do their 
work in school and out of school is of this borrowed kind, 
can not be estimated. It is, however, a large element. It is 
the most economical and rational interest for much of the work 
to be done in school. This statement is more largely true 
when this borrowed interest more or less consciously loaned 
is taken with another form of borrowed interest. This last 
form is made manifest to the student by the deep and abiding 
interest of the teacher for the subject. Here the pupil catches 



88 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [88 

the interest of the teacher, yet it is of the borrowed kind un- 
consciously controlling the student. Many persons who de- 
scribed their good or favorite, or model teachers in question- 
naire III, did so by saying such teachers were interested in 
their subjects and in their work. Mr. 1 Small makes a valuable 
contribution upon this point. That teachers might more fully 
appreciate the value of the interest manifested by themselves, 
they could well afford to read the testimony given by pupils 
in this article. The evidence of a number of pupils is given. 
" 244 students say that the attitude of the teacher toward the 
class and toward the subject taught has made them enjoy or 
hate the subject. Among the reasons for dislike, lack of 
interest on the part of the teacher is named 72 times ; poor 
methods 15 ; personal dislike for pupil 9; lack of enthusiasm 4; 
incompetency 3 ; compulsion and sarcasm 1 each." Of those 
who attribute their growing interest in subjects to the attitude 
of the teacher they say, " to the teacher's interest in subject 
104 ; his enthusiasm 1 1 ; his interest in pupil 5 ; to systematic 
suggestion and individual teaching 19." Those teachers who 
have a mind and heart large enough, can most easily and 
wisely lend their own interest to pupils, and thus secure the 
real end and aim of education. 

How do pupils come to get the interest of the teacher? 
Interest, it will be remembered, is feeling. We say feeling is 
contagious ; it is easily caught from other people. This is not 
only a saying, but it is also a fact common to experience and 
observation. It need not be dwelt upon here. When we say 
that feeling, or that kind called interest, is contagious, can be 
caught from others, we mean it can be imitated. The pupil 
sees a certain state of mind, of feeling in his teacher. This 
the student can reproduce in himself. He can and will put 
himself in a similar state of mind. This process of transfer- 
ence of feeling is imitation ; it is borrowing interest. A large, 

1 Pedagogical Seminary, iv, pp. 37-42. 



Sg] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITA TJON 8g 

and probably the most valuable, part of the teacher's work 
consists in setting the right kind of a model in this particular. 
Teachers who do this in a whole-souled manner leave an im- 
press upon their pupils that is of perennial worth. 

I do not assert that borrowed interest from teacher to those 
taught is the final aim of education. The end of education 
from the standpoint of interest is to give the pupil the power 
of developing in himself interest of the intrinsic kind. The 
pupil is to become able to find interest in new subjects, new 
lines of thought and action. However, I do assert that the 
intrinsic interest can be developed by means of the borrowed. 
The new must come out of old. Just as the child's ability to 
acquire new knowledge is conditioned upon and limited by the 
old knowledge already in its mind, so new interests are deter- 
mined by and grow out of the old. 

If now we turn from borrowed to intrinsic interest, we shall 
find that imitation is not so large a factor. But, if we remem- 
ber that intrinsic interest is developed in any subject only on 
condition that new and clear ideas come into the experience of 
the pupil, we shall still find imitation an important factor. It 
was brought out in another part of the paper that imitation is 
the means in most cases for obtaining new, clear ideas. It is 
only when the pupil attempts to reconstruct, to reproduce, to 
imitate, that all the parts, the unobserved elements, and the 
new suggestions, come out of the subject or object. It is 
chiefly by means of imitation that the pupil makes the knowl- 
edge a part of his own experience, or really learns something, 
and acquires new interests. This holds true in natural history 
and in the sciences, and is generally recognized in methods of 
teaching these subjects. It also holds true in history and lit- 
erature, even when the subject is taught from the interpretative 
standpoint. One citation from Ostermann will bring out my 
meaning. In speaking of interest in history, he says the facts 
and events must be colored '"with little accessory circum- 

1 Interest in its Relation to Pedagogy, p. 117. 



go IMITATION IN EDUCATION [90 

stances and with concrete particulars, so that the child not only 
comprehends them with his intellect, but lives them over in his 
imagination and is moved by them in heart." This statement 
means the child must reconstruct the events in its own mind, 
must match idea with idea. It must imitate the whole pro- 
cess by imaging the event. Its understanding of history and 
its interest in the subject will always depend on how accurately 
and how easily it can imitate the parts by imaging them. 
A similar process applies to literature and other kindred 
subjects. Imitation is the only means in that large part of 
education where borrowed interest must be relied upon, and 
it is an essential factor not only in developing but also in main- 
taining intrinsic interest. 

Closely akin to interest is another element in the educa- 
tional process. This element is what is called sympathy. We 
have already referred to what Smith calls " sympathetic imita- 
tion." The thought contained in the phrase is that imitation 
is the mode of sympathy. It is the way in which we come 
into sympathy with another person. 1 " The faculty that imi- 
tates conscious states is best denoted by the term sympathy. 
Sympathy means, literally, being affected with ; we sympathize 
with another when we make his inner experience our own. 
The expression sympathy has reference to conscious states 
rather than to external movements. It indicates the mode 
of relation between conscious persons, which is precisely the 
relati-on which constitutes knowledge." The idea here pre- 
sented is similar to that cited in the method of interest in his- 
tory and in literature. By sympathy the observer knows the 
actual mental processes, for he lives them through in his own 
experience. He does not use his rational faculty as equally 
cognitive of all forms of experience ; he knows the experience 
of each of the faculties of others by a corresponding faculty in 
himself. He knows feeling by feeling, sympathy by sympathy, 

1 Methods of Knowledge, p. 181. 



gi~] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION gi 

interest by interest. When we urge that the teacher must be 
in sympathy with the pupil, we mean the teacher must repro- 
duce the inner experience of the pupil in himself as teacher, to 
be able wisely to teach the pupil. And when we say the pupil 
must be in sympathy with the teacher, we mean a similar 
thing on the part of the pupil. How much depends in teach- 
ing upon this sympathetic imitation every good teacher knows, 
though he may not know the psychological process by which 
it is brought about. This principle holds not only for relation 
between pupil and teacher, but quite as well for relation be- 
tween pupil and subject. However, as was pointed out in 
interest, this comes largely through the influence of the 
teachers. Yet, the pupil must not only have an interest in a 
subject, he must really be in sympathy with it, if he would 
learn its most valuable lessons. So, here we find the way of 
knowledge is sympathy; the way of sympathy is imitation. 

The final step in the learning process is elaboration. The 
knowledge acquired in the earlier steps must be elaborated, 
worked over, to result in power and character. This process 
is analogous to what we call digestion and assimilation in the 
physical system. No amount of food taken into the stomach 
will result in physical and brain energy unless the food is 
digested and assimilated. Many children and adults literally 
starve although they take abundant food into the stomach. 
In like manner, many students store their minds well with 
facts but never attain efficiency because the facts are not 
assimilated. The process is stopped short of the real end. It 
is for this reason that such a hue and cry is so often raised 
against memory. The reason for this is not that memory is 
not an essential to mind development, but that the learning 
process stopped at the memory stage, assimilation did not 
follow. 

In order to find what part imitation plays in assimilation, 
let us inquire into the nature of assimilation in learning. 
What are the conditions under which knowledge is assimi- 



g 2 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [g 2 

lated ? A few quotations will bring out the point. * " The 
preparation of the child's mind for a rapid and effective assimi- 
lation of new knowledge, and the presentation of the matter of 
instruction in such order and manner as will best conduce to 
the most effective assimilation, is the first step in teaching." 
This statement of the simpler stages of assimilation is also 
presented in our modern notion of apperception. '"Apper- 
ception may be roughly defined at first as the process of 
acquiring new ideas by the aid of old ideas already in the 
mind." In good teaching assimilation occurs at every step. 
In these statements the simpler forms of assimilation are made 
prominent, such as is found chiefly in acquisition. The 
highest type of assimilation is manifested only in the inductive 
process, in generalizations. 3 " The mind must ever rise from 
clear individual to distinct general notions." To get our 
bearings in mind before these statements are examined, let us 
note what Rosenkranz says on the act of learning. 4 " In the 
process of instruction," he says, " the interaction between 
pupil and teacher must be so managed that the exposition by 
the teacher shall excite in the pupil the impulse to reproduc- 
tion. The didactic exposition will, through its perfect adapta- 
tion, call out the imitative instinct, the powers of new creation." 
Let us now try to find how imitation functions in these acts of 
learning. 

Why should we prepare the pupil's mind for the presenta- 
tion? Why should the old be brought into consciousness and 
vivified in order to acquire the new ? It is usually said the 
purpose is to enable the pupil to interpret the new in terms of the 
old. Rosenkranz's term " reproduction " comes more near to 
expressing the real act. The mind is prepared for instruction 

1 De Garmo's Essentials of Method, p. 46. 
1 McMurry's General Method, p. 176. 
* Essentials of Method, p. 78. 
' Philosophy of Education, p. 113. 



Q3] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION g^ 

by preparing a copy, a model, out of the old, so that the pupil 
may reproduce, may imitate, in terms of this model. Bald- 
win says, on this point, '"The principle of assimilation clearly 
illustrates not only that a copy-image may be so strong and 
habitual in consciousness as to assimilate new experiences to 
its form and color, but also that this assimilation is the very 
mode and method of the mind's digestion of what it feeds upon. 
We may say that assimilation is due to a tendency of a new 
sensory process to be drawn off into performed motor reac- 
tions; these performed reactions in their turn tending to rein- 
state, by the principle of imitation, the old stimulations or 
memories which led to their performation, with all the associ- 
ations of these memories. These memories, therefore, tend to 
take the place or stand for the new stimulations which are be- 
ing thus assimilated." Thus one may see that an essential 
characteristic of assimilation is the imitative function of mind, 
and this function is present in all the forms and grades of 
assimilation ; in some more, in others less. 

Finally, does imitation form any part of induction and gen- 
eralization ? What was given under scientific method and its 
value in education, would answer this in the affirmative. But 
that is not the whole value of imitation in generalization. If 
we follow 2 Dr. Harris, we shall find that the syllogism is not 
only closely related to apperception and to induction, but that 
it is also the basis for generalizations. It is the mold in which 
particular notions are fashioned into general notions. It is 
the model after which generalizations are patterned. When 
once the model is learned and fixed in the mind, the process 
of forming general notions and conclusions is simply a repro- 
duction, and imitation of the model. 

There is still another sense in which imitation is prominent 
in learning. Prof. James makes the point that 3 "Imitation 

1 Mental Development, pp. 308-31 1. 

1 Introduction to the Study oj Philosophy, pp. 96-125. 

3 Talks to Teachers, pp. 49—55. 



94 IMITATION IN EDUCATION [94 

shades imperceptibly into emulation. Emulation is the im- 
pulse to imitate what you see another doing, in order not to 
appear inferior. Emulation is the very nerve of human soci- 
ety, and in the school room, imitation and emulation play 
absolutely vital parts. The teacher who meets with most 
success is the teacher whose own ways are the most imitable. 
The classic example of such a teacher is Dr. Arnold of Rugby. 
It may be said that the feeling of rivalry lies at the very basis 
of our being, all social improvement being largely due to it." 
Most of the work of the world is done through this stimulus. 
It should be remembered there is a generous kind of rivalry, 
as well as a spiteful and greedy kind. However, even the 
fighting impulse must often be appealed to. " It is nonsense 
to suppose that every step in education can be interesting." 
Yet, the most wholesome kind of emulation is such as Steven- 
son exhibited. He says " I learned to write (that is, compose) 
in a wager with myself." It is well sometimes to "rouse the 
pupil's pugnacity and pride, and he will rush at the difficult 
places with a sort of inner wrath at himself that is one of the 
best moral faculties. A victory scored under such conditions 
becomes a turning-point and crisis of his character. It repre- 
sents the high-water mark of his powers, and serves thereafter 
as an ideal pattern for his self-imitation." It should be ob- 
served here that imitation in this sense is not a process in 
learning but rather an incentive for learning. 

It must be observed that there are many dangers and limi- 
tations of imitation. It is not supposed for a moment that the 
imitative method is to be a panacea for all the ills of education. 
Imitation is subject to the same dangers and abuses incident 
to any other method of securing mind activity. The abuse of 
memory work has already been referred to. The abuse of 
imitation may be likened to that of memory. If only the 
lower, more mechanical elements are called into play, imita- 
tion will be of little value and may prove harmful. The 
whole round of mental activity, from observation to execution, 



ncj] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION 95 

must be exercised. In imitation as in any other efficient 
method of teaching, danger is always close at hand. Folly 
and prudence, blunder and skill, are always next-door neigh- 
bors. This tendency to over-emphasize " the new" is seen in 
science where " method " is the chief thing of value. How- 
ever, this truth is no sooner recognized than the folly of " All 
is in all " appears. It is also manifested in the adherents of 
the " worth-whileness " doctrine. Useful knowledge is here 
the means and aim ; the value of the subject-matter to develop 
mind is neglected ; the capacity of the learner over-looked ; 
or the work degenerates into the too common-place — what 
the child already knows or will know at the right time with- 
out waste of time and energy in school to teach such 
knowledge. 

The more apparent dangers of imitation will be found in 
the model, in the motive, and in the method. The results as 
shown in questionnaires I and II indicate, and observation and 
experience prove, that many persons are quite as much dis- 
posed to imitate bad models as to imitate good models. 
1 Warner points out that great care should be exercised to avoid 
the daily contact of over-mobile, hysterical, stammering chil- 
dren with other children of mobile or nervous temperament. 
The latter, though not given to the infirmities of the former, 
will soon acquire them through imitation. 

A still greater danger lies in the motive for imitation. The 
motive may be wise or silly. If the motive for imitation is to 
get new ideas, a better method of doing work, to suggest or 
express a new idea, thought or feeling, it is on the whole good; 
if, on the other hand, it is for the purpose of display, of decep- 
tion, of shirking, it is bad. It has been truthfully said that 
man is by nature lazy. Recently, one of the papers interviewed 
a number of the prominent business men of this city, to get 
their opinions on why so many young men fail to secure and 

1 Mental Faculty, p. 129. 



gS IMITATION IN EDUCATION YgQ 

hold good positions, and to be promoted to better positions. 
The answers were all summarized in the single term " laziness." 
There is much danger that imitation may be prompted by lazi- 
ness, because the chief merit of imitation is that it is an easier, 
surer way of getting results. This will tend to make it popu- 
lar with the indolent ; it should be carefully guarded against 
by teachers. This danger of motive to shirk work and respon- 
sibility applies to both teacher and pupil. There is no more 
prevalent sin among teachers than the tendency to let things 
settle down into cut and dried methods of teaching. It re- 
quires no small amount of labor and effort on the part of the 
teacher to hold up the hands of the pupils, to keep things well 
alive, and to avoid " the line of least resistance," even when 
that course is harmful. Owing to laziness, or indifference, 
teachers too often come to the conclusion that pupils are dull 
when they are really only in need of the right kind of stimu- 
lus and encouragement to wake them up. The danger here is 
of being satisfied with too low grade of imitation, with too 
mechanical work. The good teacher should always be slow 
to conclude that any pupil can not be more than a mere 
copyist. 

The danger in the method of imitating consists largely in 
not giving the pupil sufficient freedom. The pupil must not 
only have some freedom in the choice of model, but he must 
have almost absolute freedom in imitating such models. It is 
only when the child enjoys such freedom that the imitative 
process can bring out and develop whatever of talent he may 
possess. Imitation is a process for putting the child in con- 
scious possession of its own powers, not those of any other 
person. If it is to serve its proper function, it must develop 
the individuality of the child, let that individuality be much or 
little. To develop this, the teacher must encourage the pupil, 
keep him hopeful. The reach of the pupil must ever be higher 
than his grasp. 

It must also be remembered that imitation has well defined 



g7] SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION g-j 

limitations. It can not create brain power, nor a faculty of 
mind. The most it can do is to develop the faculties which 
the pupils possess. It can not make indifferent teachers en- 
thusiastic and interested in their work ; nor can it cure slug- 
gishness in disposition and laziness in either pupil or teacher. 

Let us now summarize what the evidence in this paper seems 
to indicate. Imitation has its origin in instinct. Both the 
lower animals and mankind have an instinctive tendency to 
imitate. This instinctive tendency in human beings develops 
with intelligence and tends to become a faculty — the ability to 
imitate. The ability to imitate is a characteristic distinguish- 
ing man from the lower animals. This ability gives rise to 
and makes originality possible ; in all invention and discovery, 
excepting such invention and discovery as is achieved by ac- 
cident — either by a happy hit or a lucky find through long 
continued trial and error — imitation is an essential factor. In 
considering the scope of imitation, we found that the tendency 
and ability to imitate are ever present influences in human 
affairs and in human conduct. We saw that imitation has 
been prominent in historical events of the world ; that it is 
present in art, in science, in society, in religion, and in govern- 
ment. 

The significance of imitation was pointed out in some of its 
more fundamental relations to education. Pupils in school 
imitate their fellow- students and their teachers. Both good 
models and bad models are imitated ; each of the four ques- 
tionnaires goes to prove this fact. The fact that these models 
and the tendency to imitate them are permanent possessions 
of pupils is sufficiently well shown in training teachers, and 
manifested later in their methods of school work. The evi- 
dence seems to show that failure to recognize the influence 
and the value of imitation has been the occasion of much in- 
efficiency in teaching, and has resulted in much waste of time 
and energy in the training of teachers. Many teachers have 
had their efficiency greatly impaired by the influence of bad 



gg IMITA TION IN ED UCA TION [98 

models under whom they received their academic and profes- 
sional knowledge. Some teachers relapse, after good training, 
into bad methods absorbed in early education. The progress 
of those who do become efficient teachers is rendered more 
slow and difficult. It was also pointed out that if the imita- 
tive tendency and ability of students were properly utilized, 
the long apprenticeship in training-schools might be shortened; 
that the emphasis in the training of teachers should be placed 
upon model school work seen and upon the subsequent criti- 
cism and discussion of the model teaching ; that the proper 
function of pupil teaching is to bring out and emphasize what 
models should be imitated. 

It was also shown that much of motive and interest neces- 
sary to good work in school is due to imitation. This interest 
either has its origin in imitation or else imitation is the only 
means for the transference of this interest to pupils. Moral 
teaching, the learning of language, the acquisition and applica- 
tion of method, the whole of the learning process depend in 
no small degree upon imitation for rapidity, facility, certainty. 
The influence of imitation in these processes illustrates what 
may reasonably be claimed for it in other lines. 

The real worth of imitation in education consists in the self- 
activity it occasions. It calls into exercise all the powers of 
mind, from the acquisition of sense-knowledge to the develop- 
ment of will-power and of skill in doing. The expediency or 
economy of imitation in education consists in the fact that the 
imitative method takes full cognizance of all the race has in- 
herited from the past, and it builds upon this inheritance in de- 
veloping the mind of the child. Imitation begins this develop- 
ment by putting the child into conscious and intelligent 
possession of the achievements of the race in a more economi- 
cal and rational way. The imitative method of learning dis- 
closes the vanity and the inanity of requiring the child to invent 
and rediscover what the race has already invented or discov- 
ered. By this imitative method the child would verify through 



ggj SIGNIFICANCE OF IMITATION gg 

imitating what has already been achieved, and thus shorten 
and facilitate the learning process. By this means of verifica- 
tion, the child will the sooner have an intelligent basis, an 
apperceiving mass of knowledge for future acquisition, and 
more energy, free to pursue and achieve new thought, invention, 
and discovery. 

The principles of imitation are in perfect accord with the 
more fundamental principles of education. "Seeing and do- 
ing " and " learning to do by doing," are axiomatic ways of 
stating the imitative process in learning. No better directions 
could be given for the imitative process than this principle of 
education : " Let no task be assigned until the method of doing 
it has been explained;" unless we add to this principle, until 
the method of doing it has been seen and explained. To say 
" Proceed from the known to the related unknown," is to say, 
go by the way of imitation; for the sum and substance of imi- 
tation in education consists in its building up knowledge, 
power, and skill out of what_either the individual or the race 
has already achieved. 

Finally, it devolves upon teachers to see that pupils have 
the best models before them; that the pupils understand and 
appreciate these models ; that there be freedom to change and 
modify these models; that pupils have, in using these models, 
right motives, high ideals — to excel the model itself, to do 
what they had not been able to do before, to outstrip, surpass 
themselves. 

LofC. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



Child Observations — imitation and allied activities E. H. Russell. 

Les lois de I' imitation Gabriel Tarde. 

Round Table W. Hazlitt. 

Senses and Will W. Preyer. 

First Three Years of Childhood Bernard Perez. 

A Study of a Child L. E. Hogan. 

Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child Gabriel Compayre. 

Development of the Child N. Oppenheim. 

The Study of Children F. Warner. 

Manual of Psychology, Vol. II G. F. Stout. 

Unconscious Tuition F. D. Huntington. 

Tcm Brown at Rugby Thomas Hughes. 

Introduction to the Study of Art M. A. Dwight. 

Animal Life and Intelligence H. R. Marshall. 

Habit and Instinct Lloyd Morgan. 

The Psychology of Childhood F. Tracy. 

Education and Heredity Jean Marie Guyau. 

Development of Children A. R. Taylor. 

Children's Ways James Sully. 

Education, an Introduction to its Principles, and their Psy- 
chological Foundations H. Holman. 

Senses and Intellect A. Bain. 

Psychology, Vol. II William James. 

Studies in Literature Edward Dowden. 

Psychology of Suggestion Boris Sidis. 

Hereditary Genius Francis Galton. 

Psychology of Peoples Gustave Le Bon. 

Social and Ethical Interpretation J. M. Baldwin. 

Great Facts T. C. Bakewell. 

Studies in History of the Renaissance Walter Pater. 

Principles of Sociology F. H. Giddings. 

Mental Development J. M. Baldwin. 

Interest in its Relation to Pedagogy W. Ostermann. 

Methods of Knowledge Walter Smith. 

Talks to Teachers W. James. 

100 [ioo 



IOI BIBLIOGRAPHY [ IOI 

The School and Society John Dewey. 

Studies in Education .v Earl Barnes. 

The Infant Mind W. Preyer. 

N. E. A. Report, 1896. ..'. 

Mental Faculty '.'. Francis Warner. 

Grammar of Science Karl Pearson. 

Memories and Portraits R. L. Stevenson. 

General Method C. A. McMurry. 

Essentials of Methods Charles De Garmo. 

Philosophy of Education J. K. F. Rosenkranz. 

Natural Inheritance Francis Galton. 

Physical Nature of the Child and How to Develop It S. H. Rowe. 

Introduction to the Study of Philosophy W. T. Harris. 

Autobiography of Franklin. 

English Men of Letters — K eats John Morley. 

La suggestion son role dans 1' education P. F. Thomas. 



PERIODICAL LITERATURE 



Psychological Review : 

Preliminary Report on Imitation, Vol. 2, pp. 217-35 Josiah Royce. 

Psychology of Invention, Vol. 5, pp. 1 13-44 Josiah Royce. 

Animal Intelligence — Monograph Supplement, Vol. 2, No. 4. E. L. Thorndike. 
Mind: 

Natural History of Consciousness, Vol. 15, pp. 26-55 J. M. Baldwin. 

Psychology of Instinct, Vol. 22, pp. 59-70 A. J. Hamlin. 

Pedagogical Seminary: 

Suggestibility of Children, Vol. 4, pp. 2-46 M. H. Small. 

Teaching Instinct, Vol. 6, pp. 188-245 D. E. Phillips. 

Imitation in Children, Vol. 3, pp. 30-47 E. M. Haskill. 

Imitation, Vol. 4, pp. 382-6 Caroline Freer. 

Inhibition, Vol. 6, pp. 65-113 H. S. Curtis. 

Popular Science Monthly : 

Imitation among Atoms, Vol. 48, pp. 492-5 10 E. Noble. 

Imitative Faculty in Children, Vol. 33, pp. 249-55 W. Preyer. 

Living Age : 

Imitation as a Factor in Human Progress, Vol. 181, pp. 

728-39 E. Fry. 

London Spectator: 

Sphere of Imitativeness, Vol. 62, pp. 638-39. 

Century : 

Imitative Functions and their Place in Human Nature, 
Vol. 26, pp. 137-45 J. Royce. 

Journal of Science : 

Imitation and Mimicry, Vol. 21, p. 475 ff J. W. Slater. 

Journal of Society of Arts : 

Principles of Imitation, Decorative Arts, Vol. 12, p. 329 ff . .P. Purdie. 

All the Year: 

Spirit of Imitation, Vol. 68, p. 231 ff. 

Putnam : 

Literaty Imitations, Vol. 8, pp. 113-20. 

102 [102 



I0 3] PERIODICAL LITERATURE I0 3 

Revue Philosophique ; 

Vol. 45, pp. 225-58 F. Paulhan. 

Educational Review : 

Vol. 13, pp. 429-39 , W. H. Davis. 

Studies in Yale Psychological Laboratory : 

Mental and Physical Development of School Children, 

Vol. 2, pp. 40-100 J. A. Gilbert. 



VITA 



The writer was born in western Virginia, April 19, 1859. 
His early education was received in the district schools of 
West Virginia. He was a student in the Fairmount State 
Normal and in the University of West Virginia, five terms in 
each. He has taken courses in and received diplomas or de- 
grees from the following institutions : Peabody Normal Col- 
lege, Nashville, Tenn., diploma, 1888; University of Nashville, 
A. B., 1889; Harvard University, A. B., 1893 ; Teachers' Col- 
lege, Columbia University, higher diploma, 1899; Columbia 
University, A. M., 1899. 

The writer has held scholarships in Peabody Normal Col- 
lege and University of Nashville, in Harvard University, in 
Teachers' College, Columbia University, and a fellowship in 
Teachers' College, Columbia University. His experience in 
school work has been as follows : fifteen months as a teacher 
in district public schools, thirty-two months as principal of 
village graded schools, and five years as principal of the West 
Liberty State Normal School in West Virginia. 

(105) 



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